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Zinc - Wikipedia

Zinc - Wikipedia

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1Characteristics

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1.1Physical properties

1.2Occurrence

1.3Isotopes

2Compounds and chemistry

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2.1Reactivity

2.2Zinc(I) compounds

2.3Zinc(II) compounds

2.4Test for zinc

3History

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3.1Ancient use

3.2Early studies and naming

3.3Isolation

3.4Later work

4Production

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4.1Mining and processing

4.2Environmental impact

5Applications

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5.1Anti-corrosion and batteries

5.2Alloys

5.3Other industrial uses

5.4Organic chemistry

5.5Dietary supplement

5.5.1Gastroenteritis

5.5.2Common cold

5.5.3Weight gain

5.5.4Other

5.6Topical use

6Biological role

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6.1Enzymes

6.2Signalling

6.3Other proteins

6.4Nutrition

6.4.1Dietary recommendations

6.4.2Dietary intake

6.5Deficiency

6.6Soil remediation

6.7Agriculture

7Precautions

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7.1Toxicity

7.2Poisoning

8See also

9Notes

10Citations

11Bibliography

12External links

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Zinc

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the chemical element. For other uses, see Zinc (disambiguation).Metallic element, symbol Zn

Chemical element, symbol Zn and atomic number 30Zinc, 30ZnZincAppearancesilver-grayStandard atomic weight Ar°(Zn)65.38±0.02[1]65.38±0.02 (abridged)[2]

Zinc in the periodic table

Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium

Beryllium

Boron

Carbon

Nitrogen

Oxygen

Fluorine

Neon

Sodium

Magnesium

Aluminium

Silicon

Phosphorus

Sulfur

Chlorine

Argon

Potassium

Calcium

Scandium

Titanium

Vanadium

Chromium

Manganese

Iron

Cobalt

Nickel

Copper

Zinc

Gallium

Germanium

Arsenic

Selenium

Bromine

Krypton

Rubidium

Strontium

Yttrium

Zirconium

Niobium

Molybdenum

Technetium

Ruthenium

Rhodium

Palladium

Silver

Cadmium

Indium

Tin

Antimony

Tellurium

Iodine

Xenon

Caesium

Barium

Lanthanum

Cerium

Praseodymium

Neodymium

Promethium

Samarium

Europium

Gadolinium

Terbium

Dysprosium

Holmium

Erbium

Thulium

Ytterbium

Lutetium

Hafnium

Tantalum

Tungsten

Rhenium

Osmium

Iridium

Platinum

Gold

Mercury (element)

Thallium

Lead

Bismuth

Polonium

Astatine

Radon

Francium

Radium

Actinium

Thorium

Protactinium

Uranium

Neptunium

Plutonium

Americium

Curium

Berkelium

Californium

Einsteinium

Fermium

Mendelevium

Nobelium

Lawrencium

Rutherfordium

Dubnium

Seaborgium

Bohrium

Hassium

Meitnerium

Darmstadtium

Roentgenium

Copernicium

Nihonium

Flerovium

Moscovium

Livermorium

Tennessine

Oganesson

–↑Zn↓Cd

copper ← zinc → gallium

Atomic number (Z)30Groupgroup 12Periodperiod 4Block  d-blockElectron configuration[Ar] 3d10 4s2Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 2Physical propertiesPhase at STPsolidMelting point692.68 K ​(419.53 °C, ​787.15 °F) Boiling point1180 K ​(907 °C, ​1665 °F) Density (near r.t.)7.14 g/cm3when liquid (at m.p.)6.57 g/cm3 Heat of fusion7.32 kJ/mol Heat of vaporization115 kJ/mol Molar heat capacity25.470 J/(mol·K) Vapor pressure

P (Pa)

1

10

100

1 k

10 k

100 k

at T (K)

610

670

750

852

990

1179

Atomic propertiesOxidation states−2, 0, +1, +2 (an amphoteric oxide)ElectronegativityPauling scale: 1.65 Ionization energies1st: 906.4 kJ/mol 2nd: 1733.3 kJ/mol 3rd: 3833 kJ/mol (more) Atomic radiusempirical: 134 pm Covalent radius122±4 pm Van der Waals radius139 pm Spectral lines of zincOther propertiesNatural occurrenceprimordialCrystal structure ​hexagonal close-packed (hcp) (hP2)Lattice constantsa = 266.46 pmc = 494.55 pm (at 20 °C)[3]Thermal expansion30.2 µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C) Thermal conductivity116 W/(m⋅K) Electrical resistivity59.0 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C) Magnetic orderingdiamagnetic Molar magnetic susceptibility−11.4×10−6 cm3/mol (298 K)[4]Young's modulus108 GPa Shear modulus43 GPa Bulk modulus70 GPa Speed of sound thin rod3850 m/s (at r.t.) (rolled)Poisson ratio0.25 Mohs hardness2.5 Brinell hardness327–412 MPa CAS Number7440-66-6 HistoryDiscoveryIndian metallurgists (before 1000 BCE)First isolationAndreas Sigismund Marggraf (1746)Recognized as a unique metal byRasaratna Samuccaya (1300)Isotopes of zincve

Main isotopes[5]

Decay

abun­dance

half-life (t1/2)

mode

pro­duct

64Zn

49.2%

stable

65Zn

synth

244 d

β+

65Cu

66Zn

27.7%

stable

67Zn

4%

stable

68Zn

18.5%

stable

69Zn

synth

56 min

β−

69Ga

69mZn

synth

13.8 h

β−

69Ga

70Zn

0.6%

stable

71Zn

synth

2.4 min

β−

71Ga

71mZn

synth

4 h

β−

71Ga

72Zn

synth

46.5 h

β−

72Ga

 Category: Zincviewtalkedit | references

Zinc is a chemical element; it has symbol Zn and atomic number 30. Zinc is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a shiny-greyish appearance when oxidation is removed. It is the first element in group 12 (IIB) of the periodic table. In some respects, zinc is chemically similar to magnesium: both elements exhibit only one normal oxidation state (+2), and the Zn2+ and Mg2+ ions are of similar size.[note 1] Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in Earth's crust and has five stable isotopes. The most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc blende), a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest workable lodes are in Australia, Asia, and the United States. Zinc is refined by froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity (electrowinning).

Zinc is an essential trace element for humans,[6][7][8] animals,[9] plants[10] and for microorganisms[11] and is necessary for prenatal and postnatal development.[12] It is the second most abundant trace metal in humans after iron and it is the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes.[10][8] Zinc is also an essential nutrient element for coral growth as it is an important cofactor for many enzymes.[13]

Zinc deficiency affects about two billion people in the developing world and is associated with many diseases.[14] In children, deficiency causes growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation, infection susceptibility, and diarrhea.[12] Enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry, such as alcohol dehydrogenase in humans.[15] Consumption of excess zinc may cause ataxia, lethargy, and copper deficiency. In marine biomes, notably within polar regions, a deficit of zinc can compromise the vitality of primary algal communities, potentially destabilizing the intricate marine trophic structures and consequently impacting biodiversity.[16]

Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc in various proportions, was used as early as the third millennium BC in the Aegean area and the region which currently includes Iraq, the United Arab Emirates, Kalmykia, Turkmenistan and Georgia. In the second millennium BC it was used in the regions currently including West India, Uzbekistan, Iran, Syria, Iraq, and Israel.[17][18][19] Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in India, though it was known to the ancient Romans and Greeks.[20] The mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to the 6th century BC.[21] To date, the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar, in Rajasthan, as early as the 9th century AD when a distillation process was employed to make pure zinc.[22] Alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called "philosopher's wool" or "white snow".

The element was probably named by the alchemist Paracelsus after the German word Zinke (prong, tooth). German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is credited with discovering pure metallic zinc in 1746. Work by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by 1800. Corrosion-resistant zinc plating of iron (hot-dip galvanizing) is the major application for zinc. Other applications are in electrical batteries, small non-structural castings, and alloys such as brass. A variety of zinc compounds are commonly used, such as zinc carbonate and zinc gluconate (as dietary supplements), zinc chloride (in deodorants), zinc pyrithione (anti-dandruff shampoos), zinc sulfide (in luminescent paints), and dimethylzinc or diethylzinc in the organic laboratory.

Characteristics[edit]

Physical properties[edit]

Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal,[23] though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish.[24] It is somewhat less dense than iron and has a hexagonal crystal structure, with a distorted form of hexagonal close packing, in which each atom has six nearest neighbors (at 265.9 pm) in its own plane and six others at a greater distance of 290.6 pm.[25] The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 °C.[23][24] Above 210 °C, the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating.[26] Zinc is a fair conductor of electricity.[23] For a metal, zinc has relatively low melting (419.5 °C) and boiling point (907 °C).[27] The melting point is the lowest of all the d-block metals aside from mercury and cadmium; for this reason among others, zinc, cadmium, and mercury are often not considered to be transition metals like the rest of the d-block metals.[27]

Many alloys contain zinc, including brass. Other metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium, antimony, bismuth, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, tin, magnesium, cobalt, nickel, tellurium, and sodium.[28] Although neither zinc nor zirconium is ferromagnetic, their alloy, ZrZn2, exhibits ferromagnetism below 35 K.[23]

Occurrence[edit]

See also: Zinc minerals

Zinc makes up about 75 ppm (0.0075%) of Earth's crust, making it the 24th most abundant element. Typical background concentrations of zinc do not exceed 1 μg/m3 in the atmosphere; 300 mg/kg in soil; 100 mg/kg in vegetation; 20 μg/L in freshwater and 5 μg/L in seawater.[29] The element is normally found in association with other base metals such as copper and lead in ores.[30] Zinc is a chalcophile, meaning the element is more likely to be found in minerals together with sulfur and other heavy chalcogens, rather than with the light chalcogen oxygen or with non-chalcogen electronegative elements such as the halogens. Sulfides formed as the crust solidified under the reducing conditions of the early Earth's atmosphere.[31] Sphalerite, which is a form of zinc sulfide, is the most heavily mined zinc-containing ore because its concentrate contains 60–62% zinc.[30]

Other source minerals for zinc include smithsonite (zinc carbonate), hemimorphite (zinc silicate), wurtzite (another zinc sulfide), and sometimes hydrozincite (basic zinc carbonate).[32] With the exception of wurtzite, all these other minerals were formed by weathering of the primordial zinc sulfides.[31]

Identified world zinc resources total about 1.9–2.8 billion tonnes.[33][34] Large deposits are in Australia, Canada and the United States, with the largest reserves in Iran.[31][35][36] The most recent estimate of reserve base for zinc (meets specified minimum physical criteria related to current mining and production practices) was made in 2009 and calculated to be roughly 480 Mt.[37] Zinc reserves, on the other hand, are geologically identified ore bodies whose suitability for recovery is economically based (location, grade, quality, and quantity) at the time of determination. Since exploration and mine development is an ongoing process, the amount of zinc reserves is not a fixed number and sustainability of zinc ore supplies cannot be judged by simply extrapolating the combined mine life of today's zinc mines. This concept is well supported by data from the United States Geological Survey (USGS), which illustrates that although refined zinc production increased 80% between 1990 and 2010, the reserve lifetime for zinc has remained unchanged. About 346 million tonnes have been extracted throughout history to 2002, and scholars have estimated that about 109–305 million tonnes are in use.[38][39][40]

Sphalerite (ZnS)

Isotopes[edit]

Main article: Isotopes of zinc

Five stable isotopes of zinc occur in nature, with 64Zn being the most abundant isotope (49.17% natural abundance).[41][42] The other isotopes found in nature are 66Zn (27.73%), 67Zn (4.04%), 68Zn (18.45%), and 70Zn (0.61%).[42]

Several dozen radioisotopes have been characterized. 65Zn, which has a half-life of 243.66 days, is the least active radioisotope, followed by 72Zn with a half-life of 46.5 hours.[41] Zinc has 10 nuclear isomers, of which 69mZn has the longest half-life, 13.76 h.[41] The superscript m indicates a metastable isotope. The nucleus of a metastable isotope is in an excited state and will return to the ground state by emitting a photon in the form of a gamma ray. 61Zn has three excited metastable states and 73Zn has two.[43] The isotopes 65Zn, 71Zn, 77Zn and 78Zn each have only one excited metastable state.[41]

The most common decay mode of a radioisotope of zinc with a mass number lower than 66 is positron emission (β+), resulting an isotope of copper.[5]

n30Zn → n29Cu + e+ + νe

The most common decay mode of a radioisotope of zinc with mass number higher than 66 is beta decay (β−), which produces an isotope of gallium.[41]

n30Zn → n31Ga + e− + νe

Compounds and chemistry[edit]

Main article: Compounds of zinc

Reactivity[edit]

See also: Clemmensen reduction

Zinc has an electron configuration of [Ar]3d104s2 and is a member of the group 12 of the periodic table. It is a moderately reactive metal and strong reducing agent.[44] The surface of the pure metal tarnishes quickly, eventually forming a protective passivating layer of the basic zinc carbonate, Zn5(OH)6(CO3)2, by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide.[45]

Zinc burns in air with a bright bluish-green flame, giving off fumes of zinc oxide.[46] Zinc reacts readily with acids, alkalis and other non-metals.[47] Extremely pure zinc reacts only slowly at room temperature with acids.[46] Strong acids, such as hydrochloric or sulfuric acid, can remove the passivating layer and the subsequent reaction with the acid releases hydrogen gas.[46]

The chemistry of zinc is dominated by the +2 oxidation state. When compounds in this oxidation state are formed, the outer shell s electrons are lost, yielding a bare zinc ion with the electronic configuration [Ar]3d10.[48] In aqueous solution an octahedral complex, [Zn(H2O)6]2+ is the predominant species.[49] The volatilization of zinc in combination with zinc chloride at temperatures above 285 °C indicates the formation of Zn2Cl2, a zinc compound with a +1 oxidation state.[46] No compounds of zinc in positive oxidation states other than +1 or +2 are known.[50] Calculations indicate that a zinc compound with the oxidation state of +4 is unlikely to exist.[51] Zn(III) is predicted to exist in the presence of strongly electronegative trianions;[52] however, there exists some doubt around this possibility.[53] But in 2021 another compound was reported with more evidence that had the oxidation state of +3 with the formula ZnBeB11(CN)12.[54]

Zinc chemistry is similar to the chemistry of the late first-row transition metals, nickel and copper, though it has a filled d-shell and compounds are diamagnetic and mostly colorless.[55] The ionic radii of zinc and magnesium happen to be nearly identical. Because of this some of the equivalent salts have the same crystal structure,[56] and in other circumstances where ionic radius is a determining factor, the chemistry of zinc has much in common with that of magnesium.[46] In other respects, there is little similarity with the late first-row transition metals. Zinc tends to form bonds with a greater degree of covalency and much more stable complexes with N- and S- donors.[55] Complexes of zinc are mostly 4- or 6- coordinate, although 5-coordinate complexes are known.[46]

Zinc(I) compounds[edit]

Zinc(I) compounds are very rare. The [Zn2]2+ ion is implicated by the formation of a yellow diamagnetic glass by dissolving metallic zinc in molten ZnCl2.[57] The [Zn2]2+ core would be analogous to the [Hg2]2+ cation present in mercury(I) compounds. The diamagnetic nature of the ion confirms its dimeric structure. The first zinc(I) compound containing the Zn–Zn bond, (η5-C5Me5)2Zn2.

Zinc(II) compounds[edit]

Zinc acetate, Zn(CH3CO2)2

Zinc chloride

Binary compounds of zinc are known for most of the metalloids and all the nonmetals except the noble gases. The oxide ZnO is a white powder that is nearly insoluble in neutral aqueous solutions, but is amphoteric, dissolving in both strong basic and acidic solutions.[46] The other chalcogenides (ZnS, ZnSe, and ZnTe) have varied applications in electronics and optics.[58] Pnictogenides (Zn3N2, Zn3P2, Zn3As2 and Zn3Sb2),[59][60] the peroxide (ZnO2), the hydride (ZnH2), and the carbide (ZnC2) are also known.[61] Of the four halides, ZnF2 has the most ionic character, while the others (ZnCl2, ZnBr2, and ZnI2) have relatively low melting points and are considered to have more covalent character.[62]

In weak basic solutions containing Zn2+ ions, the hydroxide Zn(OH)2 forms as a white precipitate. In stronger alkaline solutions, this hydroxide is dissolved to form zincates ([Zn(OH)4]2−).[46] The nitrate Zn(NO3)2, chlorate Zn(ClO3)2, sulfate ZnSO4, phosphate Zn3(PO4)2, molybdate ZnMoO4, cyanide Zn(CN)2, arsenite Zn(AsO2)2, arsenate Zn(AsO4)2·8H2O and the chromate ZnCrO4 (one of the few colored zinc compounds) are a few examples of other common inorganic compounds of zinc.[63][64]

Organozinc compounds are those that contain zinc–carbon covalent bonds. Diethylzinc ((C2H5)2Zn) is a reagent in synthetic chemistry. It was first reported in 1848 from the reaction of zinc and ethyl iodide, and was the first compound known to contain a metal–carbon sigma bond.[65]

Test for zinc[edit]

Cobalticyanide paper (Rinnmann's test for Zn) can be used as a chemical indicator for zinc. 4 g of K3Co(CN)6 and 1 g of KClO3 is dissolved on 100 ml of water. Paper is dipped in the solution and dried at 100 °C. One drop of the sample is dropped onto the dry paper and heated. A green disc indicates the presence of zinc.[66]

History[edit]

Ancient use[edit]

Various isolated examples of the use of impure zinc in ancient times have been discovered. Zinc ores were used to make the zinc–copper alloy brass thousands of years prior to the discovery of zinc as a separate element. Judean brass from the 14th to 10th centuries BC contains 23% zinc.[18]

Knowledge of how to produce brass spread to Ancient Greece by the 7th century BC, but few varieties were made.[19] Ornaments made of alloys containing 80–90% zinc, with lead, iron, antimony, and other metals making up the remainder, have been found that are 2,500 years old.[30] A possibly prehistoric statuette containing 87.5% zinc was found in a Dacian archaeological site.[67]

Strabo writing in the 1st century BC (but quoting a now lost work of the 4th century BC historian Theopompus) mentions "drops of false silver" which when mixed with copper make brass. This may refer to small quantities of zinc that is a by-product of smelting sulfide ores.[68] Zinc in such remnants in smelting ovens was usually discarded as it was thought to be worthless.[69]

The manufacture of brass was known to the Romans by about 30 BC.[70] They made brass by heating powdered calamine (zinc silicate or carbonate), charcoal and copper together in a crucible.[70] The resulting calamine brass was then either cast or hammered into shape for use in weaponry.[71] Some coins struck by Romans in the Christian era are made of what is probably calamine brass.[72]

Late Roman brass bucket – the Hemmoorer Eimer from Warstade, Germany, second to third century AD

The oldest known pills were made of the zinc carbonates hydrozincite and smithsonite. The pills were used for sore eyes and were found aboard the Roman ship Relitto del Pozzino, wrecked in 140 BC.[73][74]

The Berne zinc tablet is a votive plaque dating to Roman Gaul made of an alloy that is mostly zinc.[75]

The Charaka Samhita, thought to have been written between 300 and 500 AD,[76] mentions a metal which, when oxidized, produces pushpanjan, thought to be zinc oxide.[77] Zinc mines at Zawar, near Udaipur in India, have been active since the Mauryan period (c. 322 and 187 BC). The smelting of metallic zinc here, however, appears to have begun around the 12th century AD.[78][79] One estimate is that this location produced an estimated million tonnes of metallic zinc and zinc oxide from the 12th to 16th centuries.[32] Another estimate gives a total production of 60,000 tonnes of metallic zinc over this period.[78] The Rasaratna Samuccaya, written in approximately the 13th century AD, mentions two types of zinc-containing ores: one used for metal extraction and another used for medicinal purposes.[79]

Early studies and naming[edit]

Zinc was distinctly recognized as a metal under the designation of Yasada or Jasada in the medical Lexicon ascribed to the Hindu king Madanapala (of Taka dynasty) and written about the year 1374.[80] Smelting and extraction of impure zinc by reducing calamine with wool and other organic substances was accomplished in the 13th century in India.[23][81] The Chinese did not learn of the technique until the 17th century.[81]

Alchemical symbol for the element zinc

Alchemists burned zinc metal in air and collected the resulting zinc oxide on a condenser. Some alchemists called this zinc oxide lana philosophica, Latin for "philosopher's wool", because it collected in wooly tufts, whereas others thought it looked like white snow and named it nix album.[82]

The name of the metal was probably first documented by Paracelsus, a Swiss-born German alchemist, who referred to the metal as "zincum" or "zinken" in his book Liber Mineralium II, in the 16th century.[81][83] The word is probably derived from the German zinke, and supposedly meant "tooth-like, pointed or jagged" (metallic zinc crystals have a needle-like appearance).[84] Zink could also imply "tin-like" because of its relation to German zinn meaning tin.[85] Yet another possibility is that the word is derived from the Persian word سنگ seng meaning stone.[86] The metal was also called Indian tin, tutanego, calamine, and spinter.[30]

German metallurgist Andreas Libavius received a quantity of what he called "calay" (from the Malay or Hindi word for tin) originating from Malabar off a cargo ship captured from the Portuguese in the year 1596.[87] Libavius described the properties of the sample, which may have been zinc. Zinc was regularly imported to Europe from the Orient in the 17th and early 18th centuries,[81] but was at times very expensive.[note 2]

Isolation[edit]

Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is given credit for first isolating pure zinc.

Metallic zinc was isolated in India by 1300 AD.[88][89][90] Before it was isolated in Europe, it was imported from India in about 1600 AD.[91] Postlewayt's Universal Dictionary, a contemporary source giving technological information in Europe, did not mention zinc before 1751 but the element was studied before then.[79][92]

Flemish metallurgist and alchemist P. M. de Respour reported that he had extracted metallic zinc from zinc oxide in 1668.[32] By the start of the 18th century, Étienne François Geoffroy described how zinc oxide condenses as yellow crystals on bars of iron placed above zinc ore that is being smelted.[32] In Britain, John Lane is said to have carried out experiments to smelt zinc, probably at Landore, prior to his bankruptcy in 1726.[93]

In 1738 in Great Britain, William Champion patented a process to extract zinc from calamine in a vertical retort-style smelter.[94] His technique resembled that used at Zawar zinc mines in Rajasthan, but no evidence suggests he visited the Orient.[91] Champion's process was used through 1851.[81]

German chemist Andreas Marggraf normally gets credit for isolating pure metallic zinc in the West, even though Swedish chemist Anton von Swab had distilled zinc from calamine four years previously.[81] In his 1746 experiment, Marggraf heated a mixture of calamine and charcoal in a closed vessel without copper to obtain a metal.[95][69] This procedure became commercially practical by 1752.[96]

Later work[edit]

Galvanization was named after Luigi Galvani.

William Champion's brother, John, patented a process in 1758 for calcining zinc sulfide into an oxide usable in the retort process.[30] Prior to this, only calamine could be used to produce zinc. In 1798, Johann Christian Ruberg improved on the smelting process by building the first horizontal retort smelter.[97] Jean-Jacques Daniel Dony built a different kind of horizontal zinc smelter in Belgium that processed even more zinc.[81]

Italian doctor Luigi Galvani discovered in 1780 that connecting the spinal cord of a freshly dissected frog to an iron rail attached by a brass hook caused the frog's leg to twitch.[98] He incorrectly thought he had discovered an ability of nerves and muscles to create electricity and called the effect "animal electricity".[99] The galvanic cell and the process of galvanization were both named for Luigi Galvani, and his discoveries paved the way for electrical batteries, galvanization, and cathodic protection.[99]

Galvani's friend, Alessandro Volta, continued researching the effect and invented the Voltaic pile in 1800.[98] Volta's pile consisted of a stack of simplified galvanic cells, each being one plate of copper and one of zinc connected by an electrolyte. By stacking these units in series, the Voltaic pile (or "battery") as a whole had a higher voltage, which could be used more easily than single cells. Electricity is produced because the Volta potential between the two metal plates makes electrons flow from the zinc to the copper and corrode the zinc.[98]

The non-magnetic character of zinc and its lack of color in solution delayed discovery of its importance to biochemistry and nutrition.[100] This changed in 1940 when carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme that scrubs carbon dioxide from blood, was shown to have zinc in its active site.[100] The digestive enzyme carboxypeptidase became the second known zinc-containing enzyme in 1955.[100]

Production[edit]

Mining and processing[edit]

Top zinc mine production output (by countries) 2019[33]

Rank

Country

Tonnes

1

China

4,210,000

2

Peru

1,400,000

3

Australia

1,330,000

4

United States

753,000

5

India

720,000

6

Mexico

677,000

Main articles: Zinc mining and Zinc smelting

See also: List of countries by zinc production

Price of Zinc

Percentage of zinc output in 2006 by countries[101]

World production trend

Zinc Mine Rosh Pinah, Namibia27°57′17″S 016°46′00″E / 27.95472°S 16.76667°E / -27.95472; 16.76667 (Rosh Pinah)

Zinc Mine Skorpion, Namibia27°49′09″S 016°36′28″E / 27.81917°S 16.60778°E / -27.81917; 16.60778 (Skorpion)

Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use, trailing only iron, aluminium, and copper with an annual production of about 13 million tonnes.[33] The world's largest zinc producer is Nyrstar, a merger of the Australian OZ Minerals and the Belgian Umicore.[102] About 70% of the world's zinc originates from mining, while the remaining 30% comes from recycling secondary zinc.[103]

Commercially pure zinc is known as Special High Grade, often abbreviated SHG, and is 99.995% pure.[104]

Worldwide, 95% of new zinc is mined from sulfidic ore deposits, in which sphalerite (ZnS) is nearly always mixed with the sulfides of copper, lead and iron.[105]: 6  Zinc mines are scattered throughout the world, with the main areas being China, Australia, and Peru. China produced 38% of the global zinc output in 2014.[33]

Zinc metal is produced using extractive metallurgy.[106]: 7  The ore is finely ground, then put through froth flotation to separate minerals from gangue (on the property of hydrophobicity), to get a zinc sulfide ore concentrate[106]: 16  consisting of about 50% zinc, 32% sulfur, 13% iron, and 5% SiO2.[106]: 16 

Roasting converts the zinc sulfide concentrate to zinc oxide:[105]

2

ZnS

+

3

O

2

→

t

o

2

ZnO

+

2

SO

2

{\displaystyle {\ce {2ZnS + 3O2 ->[t^o] 2ZnO + 2SO2}}}

The sulfur dioxide is used for the production of sulfuric acid, which is necessary for the leaching process. If deposits of zinc carbonate, zinc silicate, or zinc-spinel (like the Skorpion Deposit in Namibia) are used for zinc production, the roasting can be omitted.[107]

For further processing two basic methods are used: pyrometallurgy or electrowinning. Pyrometallurgy reduces zinc oxide with carbon or carbon monoxide at 950 °C (1,740 °F) into the metal, which is distilled as zinc vapor to separate it from other metals, which are not volatile at those temperatures.[108] The zinc vapor is collected in a condenser.[105] The equations below describe this process:[105]

ZnO

+

C

→

950

∘

C

Zn

+

CO

{\displaystyle {\ce {ZnO+C->[950^{\circ }C]Zn+CO}}}

ZnO

+

CO

→

950

∘

C

Zn

+

CO

2

{\displaystyle {\ce {ZnO+CO->[950^{\circ }C]Zn+CO2}}}

In electrowinning, zinc is leached from the ore concentrate by sulfuric acid and impurities are precipitated:[109]

ZnO

+

H

2

SO

4

⟶

ZnSO

4

+

H

2

O

{\displaystyle {\ce {ZnO + H2SO4 -> ZnSO4 + H2O}}}

Finally, the zinc is reduced by electrolysis.[105]

2

ZnSO

4

+

2

H

2

O

⟶

2

Zn

+

O

2

+

2

H

2

SO

4

{\displaystyle {\ce {2ZnSO4 + 2H2O -> 2Zn + O2 + 2H2SO4}}}

The sulfuric acid is regenerated and recycled to the leaching step.

When galvanised feedstock is fed to an electric arc furnace, the zinc is recovered from the dust by a number of processes, predominantly the Waelz process (90% as of 2014).[110]

Environmental impact[edit]

Refinement of sulfidic zinc ores produces large volumes of sulfur dioxide and cadmium vapor. Smelter slag and other residues contain significant quantities of metals. About 1.1 million tonnes of metallic zinc and 130 thousand tonnes of lead were mined and smelted in the Belgian towns of La Calamine and Plombières between 1806 and 1882.[111] The dumps of the past mining operations leach zinc and cadmium, and the sediments of the Geul River contain non-trivial amounts of metals.[111] About two thousand years ago, emissions of zinc from mining and smelting totaled 10 thousand tonnes a year. After increasing 10-fold from 1850, zinc emissions peaked at 3.4 million tonnes per year in the 1980s and declined to 2.7 million tonnes in the 1990s, although a 2005 study of the Arctic troposphere found that the concentrations there did not reflect the decline. Man-made and natural emissions occur at a ratio of 20 to 1.[10]

Zinc in rivers flowing through industrial and mining areas can be as high as 20 ppm.[112] Effective sewage treatment greatly reduces this; treatment along the Rhine, for example, has decreased zinc levels to 50 ppb.[112] Concentrations of zinc as low as 2 ppm adversely affects the amount of oxygen that fish can carry in their blood.[113]

Historically responsible for high metal levels in the Derwent River,[114] the zinc works at Lutana is the largest exporter in Tasmania, generating 2.5% of the state's GDP, and producing more than 250,000 tonnes of zinc per year.[115]

Soils contaminated with zinc from mining, refining, or fertilizing with zinc-bearing sludge can contain several grams of zinc per kilogram of dry soil. Levels of zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interfere with the ability of plants to absorb other essential metals, such as iron and manganese. Zinc levels of 2000 ppm to 180,000 ppm (18%) have been recorded in some soil samples.[112] The European Soil Observatory has published the first high resolution spatial assessment of topsoil Zinc (Zn) concentrations in Europe. The mean concentration of Zn in topsoils is 47 mg/kg while 1% of the measured 22,000 samples had concentrations higher than 167 mg/kg.[116]

Applications[edit]

Major applications of zinc include, with percentages given for the US[117]

Galvanizing (55%)

Brass and bronze (16%)

Other alloys (21%)

Miscellaneous (8%)

Anti-corrosion and batteries[edit]

Hot-dip handrail galvanized crystalline surface

Zinc sacrificial anode

Zinc is most commonly used as an anti-corrosion agent,[118] and galvanization (coating of iron or steel) is the most familiar form. In 2009 in the United States, 55% or 893,000 tons of the zinc metal was used for galvanization.[117]

Zinc is more reactive than iron or steel and thus will attract almost all local oxidation until it completely corrodes away.[119] A protective surface layer of oxide and carbonate (Zn5(OH)6(CO3)2) forms as the zinc corrodes.[120] This protection lasts even after the zinc layer is scratched but degrades through time as the zinc corrodes away.[120] The zinc is applied electrochemically or as molten zinc by hot-dip galvanizing or spraying. Galvanization is used on chain-link fencing, guard rails, suspension bridges, lightposts, metal roofs, heat exchangers, and car bodies.[121]

The relative reactivity of zinc and its ability to attract oxidation to itself makes it an efficient sacrificial anode in cathodic protection (CP). For example, cathodic protection of a buried pipeline can be achieved by connecting anodes made from zinc to the pipe.[120] Zinc acts as the anode (negative terminus) by slowly corroding away as it passes electric current to the steel pipeline.[120][note 3] Zinc is also used to cathodically protect metals that are exposed to sea water.[122] A zinc disc attached to a ship's iron rudder will slowly corrode while the rudder stays intact.[119] Similarly, a zinc plug attached to a propeller or the metal protective guard for the keel of the ship provides temporary protection.

With a standard electrode potential (SEP) of −0.76 volts, zinc is used as an anode material for batteries. (More reactive lithium (SEP −3.04 V) is used for anodes in lithium batteries ). Powdered zinc is used in this way in alkaline batteries and the case (which also serves as the anode) of zinc–carbon batteries is formed from sheet zinc.[123][124] Zinc is used as the anode or fuel of the zinc–air battery/fuel cell.[125][126][127] The zinc-cerium redox flow battery also relies on a zinc-based negative half-cell.[128]

Alloys[edit]

A widely used zinc alloy is brass, in which copper is alloyed with anywhere from 3% to 45% zinc, depending upon the type of brass.[120] Brass is generally more ductile and stronger than copper, and has superior corrosion resistance.[120] These properties make it useful in communication equipment, hardware, musical instruments, and water valves.[120]

Cast brass microstructure at magnification 400x

Other widely used zinc alloys include nickel silver, typewriter metal, soft and aluminium solder, and commercial bronze.[23] Zinc is also used in contemporary pipe organs as a substitute for the traditional lead/tin alloy in pipes.[129] Alloys of 85–88% zinc, 4–10% copper, and 2–8% aluminium find limited use in certain types of machine bearings. Zinc has been the primary metal in American one cent coins (pennies) since 1982.[130] The zinc core is coated with a thin layer of copper to give the appearance of a copper coin. In 1994, 33,200 tonnes (36,600 short tons) of zinc were used to produce 13.6 billion pennies in the United States.[131]

Alloys of zinc with small amounts of copper, aluminium, and magnesium are useful in die casting as well as spin casting, especially in the automotive, electrical, and hardware industries.[23] These alloys are marketed under the name Zamak.[132] An example of this is zinc aluminium. The low melting point together with the low viscosity of the alloy makes possible the production of small and intricate shapes. The low working temperature leads to rapid cooling of the cast products and fast production for assembly.[23][133] Another alloy, marketed under the brand name Prestal, contains 78% zinc and 22% aluminium, and is reported to be nearly as strong as steel but as malleable as plastic.[23][134] This superplasticity of the alloy allows it to be molded using die casts made of ceramics and cement.[23]

Similar alloys with the addition of a small amount of lead can be cold-rolled into sheets. An alloy of 96% zinc and 4% aluminium is used to make stamping dies for low production run applications for which ferrous metal dies would be too expensive.[135] For building facades, roofing, and other applications for sheet metal formed by deep drawing, roll forming, or bending, zinc alloys with titanium and copper are used.[136] Unalloyed zinc is too brittle for these manufacturing processes.[136]

As a dense, inexpensive, easily worked material, zinc is used as a lead replacement. In the wake of lead concerns, zinc appears in weights for various applications ranging from fishing[137] to tire balances and flywheels.[138]

Cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) is a semiconductive alloy that can be divided into an array of small sensing devices.[139] These devices are similar to an integrated circuit and can detect the energy of incoming gamma ray photons.[139] When behind an absorbing mask, the CZT sensor array can determine the direction of the rays.[139]

Other industrial uses[edit]

Zinc oxide is used as a white pigment in paints.

Roughly one quarter of all zinc output in the United States in 2009 was consumed in zinc compounds;[117] a variety of which are used industrially. Zinc oxide is widely used as a white pigment in paints and as a catalyst in the manufacture of rubber to disperse heat. Zinc oxide is used to protect rubber polymers and plastics from ultraviolet radiation (UV).[121] The semiconductor properties of zinc oxide make it useful in varistors and photocopying products.[140] The zinc zinc-oxide cycle is a two step thermochemical process based on zinc and zinc oxide for hydrogen production.[141]

Zinc chloride is often added to lumber as a fire retardant[142] and sometimes as a wood preservative.[143] It is used in the manufacture of other chemicals.[142] Zinc methyl (Zn(CH3)2) is used in a number of organic syntheses.[144] Zinc sulfide (ZnS) is used in luminescent pigments such as on the hands of clocks, X-ray and television screens, and luminous paints.[145] Crystals of ZnS are used in lasers that operate in the mid-infrared part of the spectrum.[146] Zinc sulfate is a chemical in dyes and pigments.[142] Zinc pyrithione is used in antifouling paints.[147]

Zinc powder is sometimes used as a propellant in model rockets.[148] When a compressed mixture of 70% zinc and 30% sulfur powder is ignited there is a violent chemical reaction.[148] This produces zinc sulfide, together with large amounts of hot gas, heat, and light.[148]

Zinc sheet metal is used as a durable covering for roofs, walls, and countertops, the last often seen in bistros and oyster bars, and is known for the rustic look imparted by its surface oxidation in use to a blue-gray patina and susceptibility to scratching.[149][150][151][152]

64Zn, the most abundant isotope of zinc, is very susceptible to neutron activation, being transmuted into the highly radioactive 65Zn, which has a half-life of 244 days and produces intense gamma radiation. Because of this, zinc oxide used in nuclear reactors as an anti-corrosion agent is depleted of 64Zn before use, this is called depleted zinc oxide. For the same reason, zinc has been proposed as a salting material for nuclear weapons (cobalt is another, better-known salting material).[153] A jacket of isotopically enriched 64Zn would be irradiated by the intense high-energy neutron flux from an exploding thermonuclear weapon, forming a large amount of 65Zn significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon's fallout.[153] Such a weapon is not known to have ever been built, tested, or used.[153]

65Zn is used as a tracer to study how alloys that contain zinc wear out, or the path and the role of zinc in organisms.[154]

Zinc dithiocarbamate complexes are used as agricultural fungicides; these include Zineb, Metiram, Propineb and Ziram.[155] Zinc naphthenate is used as wood preservative.[156] Zinc in the form of ZDDP, is used as an anti-wear additive for metal parts in engine oil.[157]

Organic chemistry[edit]

Enantioselective addition of diphenylzinc to an aldehyde[158]

Organozinc chemistry is the science of compounds that contain carbon-zinc bonds, describing the physical properties, synthesis, and chemical reactions. Many organozinc compounds are commercially important.[159][160][161][162] Among important applications are:

The Frankland-Duppa Reaction in which an oxalate ester (ROCOCOOR) reacts with an alkyl halide R'X, zinc and hydrochloric acid to form α-hydroxycarboxylic esters RR'COHCOOR[163][164]

Organozincs have similar reactivity to Grignard reagents but are much less nucleophilic, and they are expensive and difficult to handle. Organozincs typically perform nucleophilic addition on electrophiles such as aldehydes, which are then reduced to alcohols. Commercially available diorganozinc compounds include dimethylzinc, diethylzinc and diphenylzinc. Like Grignard reagents, organozincs are commonly produced from organobromine precursors.

Zinc has found many uses in catalysis in organic synthesis including enantioselective synthesis, being a cheap and readily available alternative to precious metal complexes. Quantitative results (yield and enantiomeric excess) obtained with chiral zinc catalysts can be comparable to those achieved with palladium, ruthenium, iridium and others.[165]

Dietary supplement[edit]

Zinc gluconate supplement pills

Zinc gluconate is one compound used for the delivery of zinc as a dietary supplement.

See also: Zinc sulfate (medical use) and Zinc gluconate

In most single-tablet, over-the-counter, daily vitamin and mineral supplements, zinc is included in such forms as zinc oxide, zinc acetate, zinc gluconate, or zinc amino acid chelate.[166][167]

Generally, zinc supplement is recommended where there is high risk of zinc deficiency (such as low and middle income countries) as a preventive measure.[168] Although zinc sulfate is a commonly used zinc form, zinc citrate, gluconate and picolinate may be valid options as well. These forms are better absorbed than zinc oxide.[169]

Gastroenteritis[edit]

Zinc is an inexpensive and effective part of treatment of diarrhea among children in the developing world. Zinc becomes depleted in the body during diarrhea and replenishing zinc with a 10- to 14-day course of treatment can reduce the duration and severity of diarrheal episodes and may also prevent future episodes for as long as three months.[170] Gastroenteritis is strongly attenuated by ingestion of zinc, possibly by direct antimicrobial action of the ions in the gastrointestinal tract, or by the absorption of the zinc and re-release from immune cells (all granulocytes secrete zinc), or both.[171][172]

Common cold[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Zinc and the common cold.[edit]

Zinc supplements (frequently zinc acetate or zinc gluconate lozenges) are a group of dietary supplements that are commonly used for the treatment of the common cold.[173] The use of zinc supplements at doses in excess of 75 mg/day within 24 hours of the onset of symptoms has been shown to reduce the duration of cold symptoms by about 1 day in adults.[173][174] Adverse effects with zinc supplements by mouth include bad taste and nausea.[173][174] The intranasal use of zinc-containing nasal sprays has been associated with the loss of the sense of smell;[173] consequently, in June 2009, the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) warned consumers to stop using intranasal zinc.[173]

The human rhinovirus – the most common viral pathogen in humans – is the predominant cause of the common cold.[175] The hypothesized mechanism of action by which zinc reduces the severity and/or duration of cold symptoms is the suppression of nasal inflammation and the direct inhibition of rhinoviral receptor binding and rhinoviral replication in the nasal mucosa.[173]

Weight gain[edit]

See also: Zinc deficiency § Appetite

Zinc deficiency may lead to loss of appetite.[176] The use of zinc in the treatment of anorexia has been advocated since 1979. At least 15 clinical trials have shown that zinc improved weight gain in anorexia. A 1994 trial showed that zinc doubled the rate of body mass increase in the treatment of anorexia nervosa. Deficiency of other nutrients such as tyrosine, tryptophan and thiamine could contribute to this phenomenon of "malnutrition-induced malnutrition".[177]

A meta-analysis of 33 prospective intervention trials regarding zinc supplementation and its effects on the growth of children in many countries showed that zinc supplementation alone had a statistically significant effect on linear growth and body weight gain, indicating that other deficiencies that may have been present were not responsible for growth retardation.[178]

Other[edit]

A 2023 Cochrane review stated that people taking zinc supplements may be less likely to progress to age-related macular degeneration.[179] Zinc supplement is an effective treatment for acrodermatitis enteropathica, a genetic disorder affecting zinc absorption that was previously fatal to affected infants.[70] Zinc deficiency has been associated with major depressive disorder (MDD), and zinc supplements may be an effective treatment.[180] Zinc may help individuals sleep more.[8]

Topical use[edit]

Further information: Zinc oxide § Medicine

Topical preparations of zinc include those used on the skin, often in the form of zinc oxide. Zinc oxide is generally recognised by the FDA as safe and effective[181] and is considered a very photo-stable.[182] Zinc oxide is one of the most common active ingredients formulated into a sunscreen to mitigate sunburn.[70] Applied thinly to a baby's diaper area (perineum) with each diaper change, it can protect against diaper rash.[70]

Chelated zinc is used in toothpastes and mouthwashes to prevent bad breath; zinc citrate helps reduce the build-up of calculus (tartar).[183][184]

Zinc pyrithione is widely included in shampoos to prevent dandruff.[185]

Topical zinc has also been shown to effectively treat, as well as prolong remission in genital herpes.[186]

Biological role[edit]

Main article: Zinc in biology

Zinc is an essential trace element for humans[187][6][7][8] and other animals,[9] for plants[10] and for microorganisms.[11] Zinc is required for the function of over 300 enzymes and 1000 transcription factors,[8] and is stored and transferred in metallothioneins.[188][189] It is the second most abundant trace metal in humans after iron and it is the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes.[10][8]

In proteins, zinc ions are often coordinated to the amino acid side chains of aspartic acid, glutamic acid, cysteine and histidine. The theoretical and computational description of this zinc binding in proteins (as well as that of other transition metals) is difficult.[190]

Roughly 2–4 grams of zinc[191] are distributed throughout the human body. Most zinc is in the brain, muscle, bones, kidney, and liver, with the highest concentrations in the prostate and parts of the eye.[192] Semen is particularly rich in zinc, a key factor in prostate gland function and reproductive organ growth.[193]

Zinc homeostasis of the body is mainly controlled by the intestine. Here, ZIP4 and especially TRPM7 were linked to intestinal zinc uptake essential for postnatal survival.[194][195]

In humans, the biological roles of zinc are ubiquitous.[12][7] It interacts with "a wide range of organic ligands",[12] and has roles in the metabolism of RNA and DNA, signal transduction, and gene expression. It also regulates apoptosis. A review from 2015 indicated that about 10% of human proteins (~3000) bind zinc,[196] in addition to hundreds more that transport and traffic zinc; a similar in silico study in the plant Arabidopsis thaliana found 2367 zinc-related proteins.[10]

In the brain, zinc is stored in specific synaptic vesicles by glutamatergic neurons and can modulate neuronal excitability.[7][8][197] It plays a key role in synaptic plasticity and so in learning.[7][198] Zinc homeostasis also plays a critical role in the functional regulation of the central nervous system.[7][197][8] Dysregulation of zinc homeostasis in the central nervous system that results in excessive synaptic zinc concentrations is believed to induce neurotoxicity through mitochondrial oxidative stress (e.g., by disrupting certain enzymes involved in the electron transport chain, including complex I, complex III, and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase), the dysregulation of calcium homeostasis, glutamatergic neuronal excitotoxicity, and interference with intraneuronal signal transduction.[7][199] L- and D-histidine facilitate brain zinc uptake.[200] SLC30A3 is the primary zinc transporter involved in cerebral zinc homeostasis.[7]

Enzymes[edit]

Ribbon diagram of human carbonic anhydrase II, with zinc atom visible in the center

Zinc fingers help read DNA sequences.

Zinc is an efficient Lewis acid, making it a useful catalytic agent in hydroxylation and other enzymatic reactions.[201] The metal also has a flexible coordination geometry, which allows proteins using it to rapidly shift conformations to perform biological reactions.[202] Two examples of zinc-containing enzymes are carbonic anhydrase and carboxypeptidase, which are vital to the processes of carbon dioxide (CO2) regulation and digestion of proteins, respectively.[203]

In vertebrate blood, carbonic anhydrase converts CO2 into bicarbonate and the same enzyme transforms the bicarbonate back into CO2 for exhalation through the lungs.[204] Without this enzyme, this conversion would occur about one million times slower[205] at the normal blood pH of 7 or would require a pH of 10 or more.[206] The non-related β-carbonic anhydrase is required in plants for leaf formation, the synthesis of indole acetic acid (auxin) and alcoholic fermentation.[207]

Carboxypeptidase cleaves peptide linkages during digestion of proteins. A coordinate covalent bond is formed between the terminal peptide and a C=O group attached to zinc, which gives the carbon a positive charge. This helps to create a hydrophobic pocket on the enzyme near the zinc, which attracts the non-polar part of the protein being digested.[203]

Signalling[edit]

Zinc has been recognized as a messenger, able to activate signalling pathways. Many of these pathways provide the driving force in aberrant cancer growth. They can be targeted through ZIP transporters.[208]

Other proteins[edit]

Zinc serves a purely structural role in zinc fingers, twists and clusters.[209] Zinc fingers form parts of some transcription factors, which are proteins that recognize DNA base sequences during the replication and transcription of DNA. Each of the nine or ten Zn2+ ions in a zinc finger helps maintain the finger's structure by coordinately binding to four amino acids in the transcription factor.[205]

In blood plasma, zinc is bound to and transported by albumin (60%, low-affinity) and transferrin (10%).[191] Because transferrin also transports iron, excessive iron reduces zinc absorption, and vice versa. A similar antagonism exists with copper.[210] The concentration of zinc in blood plasma stays relatively constant regardless of zinc intake.[201] Cells in the salivary gland, prostate, immune system, and intestine use zinc signaling to communicate with other cells.[211]

Zinc may be held in metallothionein reserves within microorganisms or in the intestines or liver of animals.[212] Metallothionein in intestinal cells is capable of adjusting absorption of zinc by 15–40%.[213] However, inadequate or excessive zinc intake can be harmful; excess zinc particularly impairs copper absorption because metallothionein absorbs both metals.[214]

The human dopamine transporter contains a high affinity extracellular zinc binding site which, upon zinc binding, inhibits dopamine reuptake and amplifies amphetamine-induced dopamine efflux in vitro.[215][216][217] The human serotonin transporter and norepinephrine transporter do not contain zinc binding sites.[217] Some EF-hand calcium binding proteins such as S100 or NCS-1 are also able to bind zinc ions.[218]

Nutrition[edit]

Dietary recommendations[edit]

The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for zinc in 2001. The current EARs for zinc for women and men ages 14 and up is 6.8 and 9.4 mg/day, respectively. The RDAs are 8 and 11 mg/day. RDAs are higher than EARs so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher than average requirements. RDA for pregnancy is 11 mg/day. RDA for lactation is 12 mg/day. For infants up to 12 months the RDA is 3 mg/day. For children ages 1–13 years the RDA increases with age from 3 to 8 mg/day. As for safety, the IOM sets Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of zinc the adult UL is 40 mg/day including both food and supplements combined (lower for children). Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).[201]

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL are defined the same as in the United States. For people ages 18 and older the PRI calculations are complex, as the EFSA has set higher and higher values as the phytate content of the diet increases. For women, PRIs increase from 7.5 to 12.7 mg/day as phytate intake increases from 300 to 1200 mg/day; for men the range is 9.4 to 16.3 mg/day. These PRIs are higher than the U.S. RDAs.[219] The EFSA reviewed the same safety question and set its UL at 25 mg/day, which is much lower than the U.S. value.[220]

For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For zinc labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 15 mg, but on May 27, 2016, it was revised to 11 mg.[221][222] A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.

Dietary intake[edit]

Foods and seasonings containing zinc

Animal products such as meat, fish, shellfish, fowl, eggs, and dairy contain zinc. The concentration of zinc in plants varies with the level in the soil. With adequate zinc in the soil, the food plants that contain the most zinc are wheat (germ and bran) and various seeds, including sesame, poppy, alfalfa, celery, and mustard.[223] Zinc is also found in beans, nuts, almonds, whole grains, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, and blackcurrant.[224]

Other sources include fortified food and dietary supplements in various forms. A 1998 review concluded that zinc oxide, one of the most common supplements in the United States, and zinc carbonate are nearly insoluble and poorly absorbed in the body.[225] This review cited studies that found lower plasma zinc concentrations in the subjects who consumed zinc oxide and zinc carbonate than in those who took zinc acetate and sulfate salts.[225] For fortification, however, a 2003 review recommended cereals (containing zinc oxide) as a cheap, stable source that is as easily absorbed as the more expensive forms.[226] A 2005 study found that various compounds of zinc, including oxide and sulfate, did not show statistically significant differences in absorption when added as fortificants to maize tortillas.[227]

Deficiency[edit]

Main article: Zinc deficiency

Nearly two billion people in the developing world are deficient in zinc. Groups at risk include children in developing countries and elderly with chronic illnesses.[14] In children, it causes an increase in infection and diarrhea and contributes to the death of about 800,000 children worldwide per year.[12] The World Health Organization advocates zinc supplementation for severe malnutrition and diarrhea.[228] Zinc supplements help prevent disease and reduce mortality, especially among children with low birth weight or stunted growth.[228] However, zinc supplements should not be administered alone, because many in the developing world have several deficiencies, and zinc interacts with other micronutrients.[229] While zinc deficiency is usually due to insufficient dietary intake, it can be associated with malabsorption, acrodermatitis enteropathica, chronic liver disease, chronic renal disease, sickle cell disease, diabetes, malignancy, and other chronic illnesses.[14]

In the United States, a federal survey of food consumption determined that for women and men over the age of 19, average consumption was 9.7 and 14.2 mg/day, respectively. For women, 17% consumed less than the EAR, for men 11%. The percentages below EAR increased with age.[230] The most recent published update of the survey (NHANES 2013–2014) reported lower averages – 9.3 and 13.2 mg/day – again with intake decreasing with age.[231]

Symptoms of mild zinc deficiency are diverse.[201] Clinical outcomes include depressed growth, diarrhea, impotence and delayed sexual maturation, alopecia, eye and skin lesions, impaired appetite, altered cognition, impaired immune functions, defects in carbohydrate use, and reproductive teratogenesis.[201] Zinc deficiency depresses immunity,[232] but excessive zinc does also.[191]

Despite some concerns,[233] western vegetarians and vegans do not suffer any more from overt zinc deficiency than meat-eaters.[234] Major plant sources of zinc include cooked dried beans, sea vegetables, fortified cereals, soy foods, nuts, peas, and seeds.[233] However, phytates in many whole-grains and fibers may interfere with zinc absorption and marginal zinc intake has poorly understood effects. The zinc chelator phytate, found in seeds and cereal bran, can contribute to zinc malabsorption.[14] Some evidence suggests that more than the US RDA (8 mg/day for adult women; 11 mg/day for adult men) may be needed in those whose diet is high in phytates, such as some vegetarians.[233] The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) guidelines attempt to compensate for this by recommending higher zinc intake when dietary phytate intake is greater.[219] These considerations must be balanced against the paucity of adequate zinc biomarkers, and the most widely used indicator, plasma zinc, has poor sensitivity and specificity.[235]

Soil remediation[edit]

Species of Calluna, Erica and Vaccinium can grow in zinc-metalliferous soils, because translocation of toxic ions is prevented by the action of ericoid mycorrhizal fungi.[236]

Agriculture[edit]

Zinc deficiency appears to be the most common micronutrient deficiency in crop plants; it is particularly common in high-pH soils.[237] Zinc-deficient soil is cultivated in the cropland of about half of Turkey and India, a third of China, and most of Western Australia. Substantial responses to zinc fertilization have been reported in these areas.[10] Plants that grow in soils that are zinc-deficient are more susceptible to disease. Zinc is added to the soil primarily through the weathering of rocks, but humans have added zinc through fossil fuel combustion, mine waste, phosphate fertilizers, pesticide (zinc phosphide), limestone, manure, sewage sludge, and particles from galvanized surfaces. Excess zinc is toxic to plants, although zinc toxicity is far less widespread.[10]

Precautions[edit]

Main article: Zinc toxicity

Toxicity[edit]

Although zinc is an essential requirement for good health, excess zinc can be harmful. Excessive absorption of zinc suppresses copper and iron absorption.[214] The free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to plants, invertebrates, and even vertebrate fish.[238] The Free Ion Activity Model is well-established in the literature, and shows that just micromolar amounts of the free ion kills some organisms. A recent example showed 6 micromolar killing 93% of all Daphnia in water.[239]

The free zinc ion is a powerful Lewis acid up to the point of being corrosive. Stomach acid contains hydrochloric acid, in which metallic zinc dissolves readily to give corrosive zinc chloride. Swallowing a post-1982 American one cent piece (97.5% zinc) can cause damage to the stomach lining through the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach.[240]

Evidence shows that people taking 100–300 mg of zinc daily may suffer induced copper deficiency. A 2007 trial observed that elderly men taking 80 mg daily were hospitalized for urinary complications more often than those taking a placebo.[241] Levels of 100–300 mg may interfere with the use of copper and iron or adversely affect cholesterol.[214] Zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interferes with the plant absorption of other essential metals, such as iron and manganese.[112] A condition called the zinc shakes or "zinc chills" can be induced by inhalation of zinc fumes while brazing or welding galvanized materials.[145] Zinc is a common ingredient of denture cream which may contain between 17 and 38 mg of zinc per gram. Disability and even deaths from excessive use of these products have been claimed.[242]

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) states that zinc damages nerve receptors in the nose, causing anosmia. Reports of anosmia were also observed in the 1930s when zinc preparations were used in a failed attempt to prevent polio infections.[243] On June 16, 2009, the FDA ordered removal of zinc-based intranasal cold products from store shelves. The FDA said the loss of smell can be life-threatening because people with impaired smell cannot detect leaking gas or smoke, and cannot tell if food has spoiled before they eat it.[244]

Recent research suggests that the topical antimicrobial zinc pyrithione is a potent heat shock response inducer that may impair genomic integrity with induction of PARP-dependent energy crisis in cultured human keratinocytes and melanocytes.[245]

Poisoning[edit]

In 1982, the US Mint began minting pennies coated in copper but containing primarily zinc. Zinc pennies pose a risk of zinc toxicosis, which can be fatal. One reported case of chronic ingestion of 425 pennies (over 1 kg of zinc) resulted in death due to gastrointestinal bacterial and fungal sepsis. Another patient who ingested 12 grams of zinc showed only lethargy and ataxia (gross lack of coordination of muscle movements).[246] Several other cases have been reported of humans suffering zinc intoxication by the ingestion of zinc coins.[247][248]

Pennies and other small coins are sometimes ingested by dogs, requiring veterinary removal of the foreign objects. The zinc content of some coins can cause zinc toxicity, commonly fatal in dogs through severe hemolytic anemia and liver or kidney damage; vomiting and diarrhea are possible symptoms.[249] Zinc is highly toxic in parrots and poisoning can often be fatal.[250] The consumption of fruit juices stored in galvanized cans has resulted in mass parrot poisonings with zinc.[70]

See also[edit]

List of countries by zinc production

Spelter

Wet storage stain

Zinc alloy electroplating

Metal fume fever

Piotr Steinkeller

Notes[edit]

^ The elements are from different metal groups. See periodic table.

^ An East India Company ship carrying a cargo of nearly pure zinc metal from the Orient sank off the coast Sweden in 1745.(Emsley 2001, p. 502)

^ Electric current will naturally flow between zinc and steel but in some circumstances inert anodes are used with an external DC source.

Citations[edit]

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^ Hotz, C.; DeHaene, J.; Woodhouse, L. R.; Villalpando, S.; Rivera, J. A.; King, J. C. (2005). "Zinc absorption from zinc oxide, zinc sulfate, zinc oxide + EDTA, or sodium-zinc EDTA does not differ when added as fortificants to maize tortillas". Journal of Nutrition. 135 (5): 1102–5. doi:10.1093/jn/135.5.1102. PMID 15867288.

^ a b "The impact of zinc supplementation on childhood mortality and severe morbidity". World Health Organization. 2007. Archived from the original on March 2, 2009.

^ Shrimpton, R; Gross R; Darnton-Hill I; Young M (2005). "Zinc deficiency: what are the most appropriate interventions?". British Medical Journal. 330 (7487): 347–349. doi:10.1136/bmj.330.7487.347. PMC 548733. PMID 15705693.

^ Moshfegh, Alanna; Goldman, Joseph; Cleveland, Linda (2005). "NHANES 2001–2002: Usual Nutrient Intakes from Food Compared to Dietary Reference Intakes" (PDF). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. Table A13: Zinc. Retrieved January 6, 2015.

^ What We Eat In America, NHANES 2013–2014 Archived February 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine.

^ Ibs, KH; Rink L (2003). "Zinc-altered immune function". Journal of Nutrition. 133 (5 Suppl 1): 1452S–1456S. doi:10.1093/jn/133.5.1452S. PMID 12730441.

^ a b c American Dietetic Association (2003). "Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets" (PDF). Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 103 (6): 748–765. doi:10.1053/jada.2003.50142. PMID 12778049. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 14, 2017.

^ Freeland-Graves JH; Bodzy PW; Epright MA (1980). "Zinc status of vegetarians". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 77 (6): 655–661. doi:10.1016/S1094-7159(21)03587-X. PMID 7440860. S2CID 8424197.

^ Hambidge, M (2003). "Biomarkers of trace mineral intake and status". Journal of Nutrition. 133. 133 (3): 948S–955S. doi:10.1093/jn/133.3.948S. PMID 12612181.

^ Geoffrey Michael Gadd (March 2010). "Metals, minerals and microbes: geomicrobiology and bioremediation". Microbiology. 156 (3): 609–643. doi:10.1099/mic.0.037143-0. PMID 20019082. Archived from the original on October 25, 2014.

^ Alloway, Brian J. (2008). "Zinc in Soils and Crop Nutrition, International Fertilizer Industry Association, and International Zinc Association". Archived from the original on February 19, 2013.

^ Eisler, Ronald (1993). "Zinc Hazard to Fish, Wildlife, and Invertebrates: A Synoptic Review". Contaminant Hazard Reviews. Laurel, Maryland: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service (10). Archived (PDF) from the original on March 6, 2012.

^ Muyssen, Brita T. A.; De Schamphelaere, Karel A. C.; Janssen, Colin R. (2006). "Mechanisms of chronic waterborne Zn toxicity in Daphnia magna". Aquatic Toxicology. 77 (4): 393–401. Bibcode:2006AqTox..77..393M. doi:10.1016/j.aquatox.2006.01.006. PMID 16472524.

^ Bothwell, Dawn N.; Mair, Eric A.; Cable, Benjamin B. (2003). "Chronic Ingestion of a Zinc-Based Penny". Pediatrics. 111 (3): 689–91. doi:10.1542/peds.111.3.689. PMID 12612262.

^ Johnson AR; Munoz A; Gottlieb JL; Jarrard DF (2007). "High dose zinc increases hospital admissions due to genitourinary complications". J. Urol. 177 (2): 639–43. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2006.09.047. PMID 17222649.

^ Richard Martin (February 15, 2010). "Lawsuits blame denture adhesives for neurological damage (Denture adhesives cited in lawsuits)". St. Petersburg Times. Archived from the original on October 11, 2012. Retrieved December 31, 2022.

^ Oxford, J. S.; Öberg, Bo (1985). Conquest of viral diseases: a topical review of drugs and vaccines. Elsevier. p. 142. ISBN 978-0-444-80566-9.

^ "FDA says Zicam nasal products harm sense of smell". Los Angeles Times. June 17, 2009. Archived from the original on June 21, 2012.

^ Lamore SD; Cabello CM; Wondrak GT (2010). "The topical antimicrobial zinc pyrithione is a heat shock response inducer that causes DNA damage and PARP-dependent energy crisis in human skin cells". Cell Stress & Chaperones. 15 (3): 309–22. doi:10.1007/s12192-009-0145-6. PMC 2866994. PMID 19809895.

^ Barceloux, Donald G.; Barceloux, Donald (1999). "Zinc". Clinical Toxicology. 37 (2): 279–292. doi:10.1081/CLT-100102426. PMID 10382562.

^ Bennett, Daniel R. M. D.; Baird, Curtis J. M.D.; Chan, Kwok-Ming; Crookes, Peter F.; Bremner, Cedric G.; Gottlieb, Michael M.; Naritoku, Wesley Y. M.D. (1997). "Zinc Toxicity Following Massive Coin Ingestion". American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 18 (2): 148–153. doi:10.1097/00000433-199706000-00008. PMID 9185931.

^ Fernbach, S. K.; Tucker G. F. (1986). "Coin ingestion: unusual appearance of the penny in a child". Radiology. 158 (2): 512. doi:10.1148/radiology.158.2.3941880. PMID 3941880.

^ Stowe, C. M.; Nelson, R.; Werdin, R.; Fangmann, G.; Fredrick, P.; Weaver, G.; Arendt, T. D. (1978). "Zinc phosphide poisoning in dogs". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 173 (3): 270. PMID 689968.

^ Reece, R. L.; Dickson, D. B.; Burrowes, P. J. (1986). "Zinc toxicity (new wire disease) in aviary birds". Australian Veterinary Journal. 63 (6): 199. doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1986.tb02979.x. PMID 3767804.

Bibliography[edit]

Chambers, William and Robert (1901). Chambers's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge (Revised ed.). London and Edinburgh: J. B. Lippincott Company.

Cotton, F. Albert; Wilkinson, Geoffrey; Murillo, Carlos A.; Bochmann, Manfred (1999). Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (6th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-19957-1.

David R. Lide, ed. (2006). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (87th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-8493-0487-3.

Emsley, John (2001). "Zinc". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 499–505. ISBN 978-0-19-850340-8.

Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-3365-9.

Heiserman, David L. (1992). "Element 30: Zinc". Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds. New York: TAB Books. ISBN 978-0-8306-3018-9.

Lehto, R. S. (1968). "Zinc". In Clifford A. Hampel (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 822–830. ISBN 978-0-442-15598-8. LCCN 68-29938.

Stwertka, Albert (1998). "Zinc". Guide to the Elements (Revised ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508083-4.

Weeks, Mary Elvira (1933). "III. Some Eighteenth-Century Metals". The Discovery of the Elements. Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education. ISBN 978-0-7661-3872-8.

External links[edit]

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Zinc.

Look up zinc in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Zinc: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals from the U.S. National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements

Zinc Statistics and Information from the U.S. Geological Survey's National Minerals Information Center

Zinc.org - official website of the International Zinc Association, a zinc industry association

Zinc video from the Periodic Videos series (University of Nottingham)

ZincBind.net – a database identifying biological zinc binding sites from within the Protein Data Bank

vtePeriodic table

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

1

H

He

2

Li

Be

B

C

N

O

F

Ne

3

Na

Mg

Al

Si

P

S

Cl

Ar

4

K

Ca

Sc

Ti

V

Cr

Mn

Fe

Co

Ni

Cu

Zn

Ga

Ge

As

Se

Br

Kr

5

Rb

Sr

Y

Zr

Nb

Mo

Tc

Ru

Rh

Pd

Ag

Cd

In

Sn

Sb

Te

I

Xe

6

Cs

Ba

La

Ce

Pr

Nd

Pm

Sm

Eu

Gd

Tb

Dy

Ho

Er

Tm

Yb

Lu

Hf

Ta

W

Re

Os

Ir

Pt

Au

Hg

Tl

Pb

Bi

Po

At

Rn

7

Fr

Ra

Ac

Th

Pa

U

Np

Pu

Am

Cm

Bk

Cf

Es

Fm

Md

No

Lr

Rf

Db

Sg

Bh

Hs

Mt

Ds

Rg

Cn

Nh

Fl

Mc

Lv

Ts

Og

s-block

f-block

d-block

p-block

vteZinc compoundsZinc(I)Organozinc(I) compounds

Zn2(C5(CH3)5)2

Zinc(II)

Zn(acac)2

Zn(N3)2

ZnBr2

ZnCO3

Zn(CN)2

ZnCl2

Zn(ClO3)2

ZnCrO4

ZnF2

ZnH2

ZnI2

ZnMoO4

Zn(NO3)2

ZnO

ZnO2

Zn(ClO4)2

Zn(OH)2

ZnS

ZnSO4

ZnSe

ZnTe

Zn2P2O7

Zn3Sb2

Zn3As2

Zn3N2

Zn3P2

ZnP2

Zn3(PO4)2Organozinc(II) compounds

Zn(CH3)2

Zn(C2H5)2

Zn(CH3COO)2

Zn(CH(CH3)2)2

Zn(C(CH3)3)2

Zn(C6H5)2

Zn(C3H5O3)2

ZnICH2I

C24H46ZnO4

vteIonotropic glutamate receptor modulatorsAMPARTooltip α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor

Agonists: Main site agonists: 5-Fluorowillardiine

Acromelic acid (acromelate)

AMPA

BOAA

Domoic acid

Glutamate

Ibotenic acid

Proline

Quisqualic acid

Willardiine; Positive allosteric modulators: Aniracetam

Cyclothiazide

CX-516

CX-546

CX-614

Farampator (CX-691, ORG-24448)

CX-717

CX-1739

CX-1942

Diazoxide

Hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ)

IDRA-21

LY-392098

LY-395153

LY-404187

LY-451646

LY-503430

Mibampator (LY-451395)

Nooglutyl

ORG-26576

Oxiracetam

PEPA

Pesampator (BIIB-104, PF-04958242)

Piracetam

Pramiracetam

S-18986

Tulrampator (S-47445, CX-1632)

Antagonists: ACEA-1011

ATPO

Becampanel

Caroverine

CNQX

Dasolampanel

DNQX

Fanapanel (MPQX)

GAMS

Kaitocephalin

Kynurenic acid

Kynurenine

Licostinel (ACEA-1021)

NBQX

PNQX

Selurampanel

Tezampanel

Theanine

Topiramate

YM90K

Zonampanel; Negative allosteric modulators: Barbiturates (e.g., pentobarbital, sodium thiopental)

Cyclopropane

Enflurane

Ethanol (alcohol)

Evans blue

GYKI-52466

GYKI-53655

Halothane

Irampanel

Isoflurane

Perampanel

Pregnenolone sulfate

Sevoflurane

Talampanel; Unknown/unsorted antagonists: Minocycline

KARTooltip Kainate receptor

Agonists: Main site agonists: 5-Bromowillardiine

5-Iodowillardiine

Acromelic acid (acromelate)

AMPA

ATPA

Domoic acid

Glutamate

Ibotenic acid

Kainic acid

LY-339434

Proline

Quisqualic acid

SYM-2081; Positive allosteric modulators: Cyclothiazide

Diazoxide

Enflurane

Halothane

Isoflurane

Antagonists: ACEA-1011

CNQX

Dasolampanel

DNQX

GAMS

Kaitocephalin

Kynurenic acid

Licostinel (ACEA-1021)

LY-382884

NBQX

NS102

Selurampanel

Tezampanel

Theanine

Topiramate

UBP-302; Negative allosteric modulators: Barbiturates (e.g., pentobarbital, sodium thiopental)

Enflurane

Ethanol (alcohol)

Evans blue

NS-3763

Pregnenolone sulfate

NMDARTooltip N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor

Agonists: Main site agonists: AMAA

Aspartate

Glutamate

Homocysteic acid (L-HCA)

Homoquinolinic acid

Ibotenic acid

NMDA

Proline

Quinolinic acid

Tetrazolylglycine

Theanine; Glycine site agonists: β-Fluoro-D-alanine

ACBD

ACC (ACPC)

ACPD

AK-51

Apimostinel (NRX-1074)

B6B21

CCG

D-Alanine

D-Cycloserine

D-Serine

DHPG

Dimethylglycine

Glycine

HA-966

L-687414

L-Alanine

L-Serine

Milacemide

Neboglamine (nebostinel)

Rapastinel (GLYX-13)

Sarcosine; Polyamine site agonists: Neomycin

Spermidine

Spermine; Other positive allosteric modulators: 24S-Hydroxycholesterol

DHEATooltip Dehydroepiandrosterone (prasterone)

DHEA sulfate (prasterone sulfate)

Epipregnanolone sulfate

Plazinemdor

Pregnenolone sulfate

SAGE-201

SAGE-301

SAGE-718

Antagonists: Competitive antagonists: AP5 (APV)

AP7

CGP-37849

CGP-39551

CGP-39653

CGP-40116

CGS-19755

CPP

Kaitocephalin

LY-233053

LY-235959

LY-274614

MDL-100453

Midafotel (d-CPPene)

NPC-12626

NPC-17742

PBPD

PEAQX

Perzinfotel

PPDA

SDZ-220581

Selfotel; Glycine site antagonists: 4-Cl-KYN (AV-101)

5,7-DCKA

7-CKA

ACC

ACEA-1011

ACEA-1328

Apimostinel (NRX-1074)

AV-101

Carisoprodol

CGP-39653

CNQX

D-Cycloserine

DNQX

Felbamate

Gavestinel

GV-196771

Harkoseride

Kynurenic acid

Kynurenine

L-689560

L-701324

Licostinel (ACEA-1021)

LU-73068

MDL-105519

Meprobamate

MRZ 2/576

PNQX

Rapastinel (GLYX-13)

ZD-9379; Polyamine site antagonists: Arcaine

Co 101676

Diaminopropane

Diethylenetriamine

Huperzine A

Putrescine; Uncompetitive pore blockers (mostly dizocilpine site): 2-MDP

3-HO-PCP

3-MeO-PCE

3-MeO-PCMo

3-MeO-PCP

4-MeO-PCP

8A-PDHQ

18-MC

α-Endopsychosin

Alaproclate

Alazocine (SKF-10047)

Amantadine

Aptiganel

Argiotoxin-636

Arketamine

ARL-12495

ARL-15896-AR

ARL-16247

Budipine

Coronaridine

Delucemine (NPS-1506)

Dexoxadrol

Dextrallorphan

Dextromethadone

Dextromethorphan

Dextrorphan

Dieticyclidine

Diphenidine

Dizocilpine

Ephenidine

Esketamine

Etoxadrol

Eticyclidine

Fluorolintane

Gacyclidine

Ibogaine

Ibogamine

Indantadol

Ketamine

Ketobemidone

Lanicemine

Levomethadone

Levomethorphan

Levomilnacipran

Levorphanol

Loperamide

Memantine

Methadone

Methorphan

Methoxetamine

Methoxphenidine

Milnacipran

Morphanol

NEFA

Neramexane

Nitromemantine

Noribogaine

Norketamine

Orphenadrine

PCPr

PD-137889

Pethidine (meperidine)

Phencyclamine

Phencyclidine

Propoxyphene

Remacemide

Rhynchophylline

Rimantadine

Rolicyclidine

Sabeluzole

Tabernanthine

Tenocyclidine

Tiletamine

Tramadol; Ifenprodil (NR2B) site antagonists:

Besonprodil

Buphenine (nylidrin)

CO-101244 (PD-174494)

Eliprodil

Haloperidol

Isoxsuprine

Radiprodil (RGH-896)

Rislenemdaz (CERC-301, MK-0657)

Ro 8-4304

Ro 25-6981

Safaprodil

Traxoprodil (CP-101606); NR2A-selective antagonists: MPX-004

MPX-007

TCN-201

TCN-213; Cations: Hydrogen

Magnesium

Zinc; Alcohols/volatile anesthetics/related: Benzene

Butane

Chloroform

Cyclopropane

Desflurane

Diethyl ether

Enflurane

Ethanol (alcohol)

Halothane

Hexanol

Isoflurane

Methoxyflurane

Nitrous oxide

Octanol

Sevoflurane

Toluene

Trichloroethane

Trichloroethanol

Trichloroethylene

Urethane

Xenon

Xylene; Unknown/unsorted antagonists: ARR-15896

Bumetanide

Caroverine

Conantokin

D-αAA

Dexanabinol

Flufenamic acid

Flupirtine

FPL-12495

FR-115427

Furosemide

Hodgkinsine

Ipenoxazone (MLV-6976)

MDL-27266

Metaphit

Minocycline

MPEP

Niflumic acid

Pentamidine

Pentamidine isethionate

Piretanide

Psychotridine

Transcrocetin (saffron)

Unsorted: Allosteric modulators: AGN-241751

See also: Receptor/signaling modulators

Metabotropic glutamate receptor modulators

Glutamate metabolism/transport modulators

Authority control databases: National

Spain

France

BnF data

Germany

Israel

United States

Japan

Czech Republic

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Zinc - Health Professional Fact Sheet

Zinc - Health Professional Fact Sheet

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Home > Health Information > Dietary Supplement Fact Sheets > Zinc > Zinc - Health Professional

Zinc

Fact Sheet for Consumers

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Other Resources

Table of Contents

Introduction

Recommended Intakes

Sources of Zinc

Zinc Intakes and Status

Zinc Deficiency

Groups at Risk of Zinc Inadequacy

Zinc and Health

Health Risks from Excessive Zinc

Interactions with Medications

Zinc and Healthful Diets

References

Disclaimer

Introduction

Zinc, an essential mineral, is naturally present in some foods, added to others, and available as a dietary supplement. Zinc is also found in some cold lozenges, over-the-counter drugs sold as cold remedies, and some denture adhesive creams.

Zinc is involved in many aspects of cellular metabolism. It is required for the catalytic activity of hundreds of enzymes, and it plays a role in enhancing immune function, protein and DNA synthesis, wound healing, and cell signaling and division [1-4]. Zinc also supports healthy growth and development during pregnancy, infancy, childhood, and adolescence and is involved in the sense of taste [2,3,5].

The total amount of zinc in the body is approximately 1.5 g in women and 2.5 g in men [2]. Most of this zinc is stored in skeletal muscle and bone [1-3].

The processes that maintain zinc homeostasis are absorption of zinc from the diet, excretion into the gastrointestinal tract, and reabsorption in the gastrointestinal lumen [2,3]. In general, as zinc intakes rise, the amount of zinc absorbed also increases, but its fractional absorption drops [2,3].

Serum or plasma zinc levels are typically used in clinical practice to assess zinc status. In healthy people, the amount of zinc in serum or plasma is 80 to 120 mcg/dL (12 to 18 mcmol/L) [2]. Serum zinc levels below 70 mcg/dL in women and 74 mcg/dL in men indicate inadequate zinc status. However, both serum and plasma measures have important limitations. Zinc concentrations in serum are associated with the patient’s sex and age as well as the time of the blood draw (morning vs. evening) and do not always correlate with dietary or supplemental zinc intakes [6]. Zinc levels also fluctuate in response to other factors, including infections, changes in steroid hormones, and muscle catabolism during weight loss or illness [1,3]. Clinicians consider risk factors (such as inadequate caloric intake, chronic alcohol use, and malabsorptive digestive diseases) and signs of zinc deficiency (such as impaired growth in infants and children) when they assess a patient’s zinc status [1].

Recommended Intakes

Intake recommendations for zinc and other nutrients are provided in the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) developed by the Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) at the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine [1]. DRI is the general term for a set of reference values used for planning and assessing nutrient intakes of healthy people. These values, which vary by age and sex, include the following:

Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA): Average daily level of intake sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97%–98%) healthy individuals; often used to plan nutritionally adequate diets for individuals

Adequate Intake (AI): Intake at this level is assumed to ensure nutritional adequacy; established when evidence is insufficient to develop an RDA

Estimated Average Requirement (EAR): Average daily level of intake estimated to meet the requirements of 50% of healthy individuals; usually used to assess the nutrient intakes of groups of people and to plan nutritionally adequate diets for them; can also be used to assess the nutrient intakes of individuals

Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL): Maximum daily intake unlikely to cause adverse health effects

Table 1: Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for Zinc [1]

Age

Male

Female

Pregnancy

Lactation

Birth to 6 months*

2 mg

2 mg

7–12 months

3 mg

3 mg

1–3 years

3 mg

3 mg

4–8 years

5 mg

5 mg

9–13 years

8 mg

8 mg

14–18 years

11 mg

9 mg

12 mg

13 mg

19+ years

11 mg

8 mg

11 mg

12 mg

*Adequate Intake (AI), equivalent to the mean intake of zinc in healthy, breastfed infants.

Sources of Zinc

Food

The richest food sources of zinc include meat, fish, and seafood [3]. Oysters contain more zinc per serving than any other food, but beef contributes 20% of zinc intakes from food in the United States because it is commonly consumed [7]. Eggs and dairy products also contain zinc [3]. Beans, nuts, and whole grains contain zinc, but the bioavailability of zinc from these foods is lower than that from animal foods because these foods contain phytates. Phytates, the storage form of phosphorus in plants, bind some minerals such as zinc in the intestine and form an insoluble complex that inhibits zinc absorption [1-3,8]. Fruits and vegetables contain very little zinc.

Breakfast cereals, which are often fortified with zinc, are a major source of zinc in the U.S. diet [3]. In U.S. children and adolescents, 12.1% to 18.4% of daily zinc intakes come from enriched and fortified foods [9].

The amount of zinc absorbed from food ranges from 5% to more than 50%, depending on the amount of plant-based foods (and thus of phytate) in the diet [3]. The absorption of zinc from mixed meals or diets containing a combination of animal-based and plant-based foods is lower than from diets or meals containing animal-based foods only [10].

Table 2 lists a variety of foods and their zinc content per serving [11].

Table 2: Zinc Content of Selected Foods [11]

Food

Milligrams (mg) per

serving

Percent

DV*

Oysters, Eastern, farmed, raw, 3 ounces

32

291

Oysters, Pacific, cooked, 3 ounces

28.2

256

Beef, bottom sirloin, roasted, 3 ounces

3.8

35

Blue crab, cooked, 3 ounces

3.2

29

Breakfast cereals, fortified with 25% of the DV for zinc, 1 serving

2.8

25

Cereals, oats, regular and quick, unenriched, cooked with water, 1 cup

2.3

21

Pumpkin seeds, roasted, 1 ounce

2.2

20

Pork, center loin (chops), bone in, broiled, 3 ounces

1.9

17

Turkey breast, meat only, roasted, 3 ounces

1.5

14

Cheese, cheddar, 1.5 ounces

1.5

14

Shrimp, cooked, 3 ounces

1.4

13

Lentils, boiled, ½ cup

1.3

12

Sardines, canned in oil, drained solids with bone, 3 ounces

1.1

10

Greek yogurt, plain, 6 ounces

1.0

9

Milk, 1% milkfat, 1 cup

1.0

9

Peanuts, dry roasted, 1 ounce

0.8

7

Rice, brown, long grain, cooked, ½ cup

0.7

6

Egg, large, 1 

0.6

5

Kidney beans, canned, ½ cup

0.6

5

Bread, whole wheat, 1 slice

0.6

5

Fish, salmon, cooked, 3 ounces

0.5

5

Broccoli, chopped, cooked, ½ cup

0.4

4

Rice, white, long grain, cooked, ½ cup

0.3

3

Bread, white, 1 slice

0.2

2

Cherry tomatoes, raw, ½ cup

0.1

1

Blueberries, raw, ½ cup

0.1

1

*DV = Daily Value. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) developed DVs to help consumers compare the nutrient contents of foods and dietary supplements within the context of a total diet. The DV for zinc is 11 mg for adults and children age 4 years and older [12]. FDA does not require food labels to list zinc content unless zinc has been added to the food. Foods providing 20% or more of the DV are considered to be high sources of a nutrient, but foods providing lower percentages of the DV also contribute to a healthful diet.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA's) FoodData Central lists the nutrient content of many foods and provides a comprehensive list of foods containing zinc arranged by nutrient content and by food name.

Dietary supplements

Zinc is available in supplements containing only zinc; supplements containing zinc in combination with other ingredients; and in many multivitamin/mineral products [13]. Supplements can contain any of a variety of forms of zinc, including zinc sulfate, zinc acetate, and zinc gluconate [14]. The Supplement Facts panel on a dietary supplement label declares the amount of elemental zinc in the product, not the weight of the entire zinc-containing compound.

Absorption of zinc from supplements containing zinc citrate or zinc gluconate is similar, at approximately 61% in young adults; the absorption from supplements containing zinc oxide is 50% [15]. Taking supplements containing 25 mg elemental iron or more at the same time as zinc supplements can reduce zinc absorption and plasma zinc concentrations [16-19]. However, the iron added to enriched or fortified foods does not interfere with zinc absorption.

Other sources

Products containing zinc include some labeled as homeopathic medications as well as nasal sprays that are sold over the counter to treat or prevent the common cold, manage flu symptoms, and support immune system health.

Some denture adhesive creams contain 17–34 mg/g zinc to enhance their adhesive properties [20]. Use as directed, resulting in intakes of 0.5–1.5 g zinc from these products per day, is not a concern. However, chronic, excessive use can lead to zinc toxicity, which can cause copper deficiency and neurologic diseases. Such toxicity has been reported in individuals who use at least one tube containing a total of 2.4 g or more denture cream each week for several years [21-23]. Many denture creams have been reformulated to omit zinc.

Zinc Intakes and Status

Most people in the United States consume adequate amounts of zinc, but people in certain age groups, especially older adults, might have marginal intakes. The average daily zinc intake from foods is 7.6–9.7 mg/day in children age 2–11 years, 10.1 mg/day in children and teens age 12–19 years, 13 mg/day in men older than 19, and 9.2 mg/day in women [24]. The average daily zinc intake from foods and supplements is 8.4–10.4 mg/day in children age 2–11 years, 10.7 mg/day in children and teens age 12–19 years, 16.4 mg/day in men, and 12.6 mg/day in women. In pregnant people age 20–40 years, the mean zinc intake is 12.4 mg/day from foods alone and 22.7 mg/day from foods and supplements [25].

Less than 1% of U.S. children age 2 to 8 years have zinc intakes from foods and supplements that are lower than the EAR. Among boys age 14 to 18 years, 1% have intakes below the EAR [9]. However, the proportion is much higher, 20.9%, in girls in this age group. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data from 2005 to 2016 show that among U.S. adults age 19 years and older, 15% have zinc intakes below the EAR [26].

In the United States, 3.8% of children younger than 10, 8.6% of males age 10 and older, and 8.2% of females have serum zinc concentrations below the serum zinc cutoff for sufficiency for their age and sex according to an analysis of 2011–2014 NHANES data [6,8]. The investigators used cutoffs developed by the Biomarkers of Nutrition for Development Zinc Expert Panel on the basis of a statistical definition: 57–65 mcg/dL for children younger than 10, 69–70 mcg/dL for females age 10 and older, and 61–74 mcg/dL for males age 10 and older [8].

Zinc deficiency based on serum or plasma concentrations is much more common in low-income and middle-income countries [27]. According to an estimate based on analyses of zinc and phytate available in national food supplies and the prevalence of stunting, approximately 17% of the world’s population is likely to have zinc deficiency [28].

Zinc Deficiency

Because zinc has many functions throughout the body, zinc deficiency affects many different tissues and organs [29]. Zinc deficiency can affect, for example, skin; bones; and the digestive, reproductive, central nervous, and immune systems [29].

The manifestations of zinc deficiency vary by age [29]. In infants and children, diarrhea is a common sign. In older children, alopecia, delayed growth, and frequent infections become more prevalent. In both infants and children, zinc deficiency can impair growth and lead to a loss of appetite and reproductive problems when they reach adulthood [2,3,27,30]. In populations with low intakes of absorbable zinc (e.g., from meat and fish), including many low-income and middle-income countries, zinc deficiency affects the health of pregnant people and their infants by increasing the risk of child morbidity (including premature birth and low birthweight) and mortality, maternal morbidity, and adverse birth outcomes [27]. In addition, zinc deficiency can interfere with the senses of taste and smell [5]. Zinc deficiency in older adults can cause delays in wound healing and changes in cognitive and psychological function [29].

Groups at Risk of Zinc Inadequacy

The following groups are among those most likely to have inadequate zinc status.

People with gastrointestinal disorders or who have had bariatric surgery

Zinc inadequacy is common in people with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD, which includes ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease) or bariatric surgery involving resection of the gastrointestinal tract because of poor dietary intakes, decreased absorption, or increased urinary excretion as a result of inflammation [31,32]. Approximately 15% to 40% of people with IBD have zinc deficiency during active disease states and while in remission [31,32]. In patients with zinc deficiency, the risk of IBD-related symptoms (including anemia, hemorrhage, and abdominal or perianal fistula) increases, and these patients are more likely to need hospitalization or surgery. Zinc supplementation might reduce these risks [31].

Approximately 50% of people with newly diagnosed celiac disease have a high risk of zinc inadequacy or deficiency; potential contributors to this risk might include zinc malabsorption and mucosal inflammation [33,34]. These deficiencies sometimes persist even when people with celiac disease avoid foods containing gluten [34].

Vegetarians (especially vegans)

The bioavailability of zinc from vegetarian diets is lower than from nonvegetarian diets because vegetarians typically eat large amounts of legumes and whole grains, which contain phytates that bind zinc and inhibit its absorption [2]. In addition, meat is high in bioavailable zinc [35]. As a result, vegetarians and vegans usually have lower dietary intakes of zinc and lower serum zinc levels than nonvegetarians [36].

Vegetarians and vegans might benefit from using certain food preparation techniques that reduce the binding of zinc by phytates and increase its bioavailability, such as soaking beans, grains, and seeds in water for several hours before cooking them [37]. In addition, organic acids in fermented foods might increase zinc absorption [37]. Vegetarians and vegans might also benefit from zinc supplements [38].

People who are pregnant or lactating

During pregnancy, the amount of zinc needed increases to accommodate fetal growth, and the FNB therefore recommends that pregnant people consume 3 mg/day more zinc than nonpregnant people in the same age group [1,3]. Similarly, the zinc requirement increases by 4 mg/day during lactation.

NHANES data from 2001 to 2014 show that 11% of pregnant people in the United States have total zinc intakes from foods and supplements that are below the EAR [25]. Low serum zinc concentrations during pregnancy might increase the risk of preeclampsia and low-birthweight infants [39,40]. Routine zinc supplementation during pregnancy does not appear to reduce the risk of low birthweight, stillbirth, or neonatal death, but it might lower the risk of preterm birth [41].

During lactation, some [42,43] but not all [44] studies show that adequate intakes of foods rich in zinc increase concentrations of the mineral in breast milk. Evidence is also conflicting on whether zinc supplementation during lactation increases the zinc content of breast milk [45,46].

Older infants who are exclusively breastfed

Zinc concentrations in breast milk peak during the first month after birth and then decline by approximately 75% by the ninth month [3]. Because of this sharp drop, human breast milk alone is not sufficient to meet the infant’s zinc requirement after age 6 months [3,47]. The FNB recommends that in addition to breast milk, infants age 7–12 months consume age-appropriate foods or formula containing zinc [1].

Children with sickle cell disease

Children with sickle cell disease (SCD) have a high risk of zinc insufficiency or deficiency, possibly as a result of the chelation therapy used to treat iron overload [3,48]. Children with SCD and low zinc status often are shorter and weigh less than age-matched peers, and they also have a higher risk of maturation delays, vaso-occlusive pain crises (blockages of blood flow to an area of the body), and associated hospitalizations [48]. Supplemental zinc might enhance growth in children with SCD and decrease the risk of bacterial infections, hospitalizations, and vaso-occlusive pain crises [3,48,49].

People with alcohol use disorder

Low zinc status has been observed in 30% to 50% of people with alcohol use disorder [1,50]. Ethanol consumption decreases intestinal absorption of zinc and increases urinary zinc excretion [1,50,51,52]. In addition, the variety and amount of food consumed by many people with alcohol use disorder is limited, leading to inadequate zinc intake [53,54].

Zinc and Health

This section focuses on the following diseases and disorders in which zinc might play a role: the common cold, pneumonia in children, HIV in children and adults, acute childhood diarrhea (which often results from infections), age-related macular degeneration (AMD), and type 2 diabetes (T2D). For information on zinc and COVID-19, see Dietary Supplements in the Time of COVID-19.

The common cold

Researchers have hypothesized that zinc could reduce the severity and duration of cold signs and symptoms by directly inhibiting rhinovirus binding and replication in the nasal mucosa and suppressing inflammation [55,56]. In studies examining the effects of zinc supplements on the common cold, zinc is usually administered in a lozenge or syrup that temporarily sticks to the mouth and throat, placing the zinc in contact with the rhinovirus in those areas.

The results from clinical trials that have examined the effects of zinc supplements on the common cold have been inconsistent. Overall, however, supplemental zinc in lozenge or syrup form appears to reduce the duration, but not the severity, of signs and symptoms of the common cold when taken shortly after a person develops a cold [57-60].

In one clinical trial, 50 adults took a zinc acetate lozenge (13.3 mg zinc) or placebo every 2–3 wakeful hours within 24 hours of developing the common cold for as long as they had cold symptoms. In comparison with placebo, the zinc lozenges reduced the duration of colds by 3 days and the severity of cold symptoms (cough, nasal discharge, and muscle aches) [61]. In another clinical trial, 273 adults with experimentally induced colds were randomly assigned to take zinc gluconate (13.3 mg zinc) or zinc acetate (5.0 mg or 11.5 mg) lozenges every 2 to 3 hours while awake, for a total of six lozenges per day, or placebo, for up to 14 days [62]. Duration of illness was 1 day less with the zinc gluconate supplements than with the placebo, but the lozenges had no effect on symptom severity. Furthermore, the 5.0 and 11.5 mg zinc acetate lozenges had no effect on either cold duration or severity. In a second trial described in the same report, neither zinc gluconate nor zinc acetate lozenges affected the duration or severity of cold symptoms in comparison with placebo in 281 adults with colds [62].

A 2021 systematic review and meta-analysis included 28 randomized controlled trials (including the three described above) with a total of 5,446 participants (mostly adults younger than 65 years) who had a community-acquired viral respiratory tract infection or were inoculated with a rhinovirus [57]. Most trials provided zinc in the form of zinc acetate or gluconate lozenges at total daily doses of 45 mg to 300 mg for up to 2 weeks, but some trials used nasal sprays or gels. In participants who used products containing zinc, symptoms resolved an average of 2 days earlier than in those who received a placebo. However, average daily symptom severity did not differ between those who were and were not treated with zinc. The author of an earlier systematic review concluded that the use of zinc lozenges at doses of over 75 mg/day reduced the duration of the common cold, whereas lower doses did not [59].

Additional research is needed to determine the optimal dosage, formulation, and administration schedule before a general recommendation can be made regarding the use of lozenges, gels, and sprays containing zinc to reduce the severity and duration of symptoms of the common cold [58-60].

Pneumonia in children

In low-income countries, pneumonia is responsible for 15% of all deaths in children younger than 5 years and for 19% of all childhood deaths [63]. Poor zinc status is associated with greater susceptibility to pneumonia, more severe disease, and higher mortality risk in children [64-67].

Several clinical trials have examined the effects of zinc supplementation on the incidence of pneumonia and as an adjunctive treatment for pneumonia. A 2016 Cochrane Review of six trials in low-income countries found that supplementation with 10–20 mg zinc for up to 20 months in a total of 5,193 children age 2 to 59 months resulted in lower incidence and prevalence of pneumonia than placebo [63].

However, most research suggests that the adjunctive use of zinc supplements to treat pneumonia in children does not affect mortality or time to recovery. A 2020 systematic review and meta-analysis included 11 clinical trials in children age 2 to 60 months with mostly severe pneumonia in low- and middle-income countries [68]. Mortality rates from pneumonia and time to recovery from severe pneumonia did not differ between children treated with 10–20 mg/day supplemental zinc and those treated with placebo for 7–14 days or until discharge. Another meta-analysis of six placebo-controlled trials that included 2,216 children age 2 to 60 months found that zinc supplementation reduced mortality rates from severe pneumonia but not rates of treatment failure or of changes in antibiotic therapy [69].

HIV in children and adults

HIV infection reduces the absorption and metabolism of zinc from foods [3]. In addition, people with HIV often have diarrhea, which can result in excessive losses of zinc. For these reasons, people with HIV often have low plasma or serum zinc levels.

Several clinical trials have found some beneficial effects of zinc supplementation to manage the morbidity and mortality associated with HIV infection. One trial, for example, randomly assigned 231 adults who had HIV and plasma zinc levels lower than 75 mcg/dL to supplemental zinc (12 mg/day for women or 15 mg/day for men) or placebo for 18 months [70]. The supplements reduced rates of immunological failure events (CD4+ T-cell counts less than 200 cells/mL) by 76% and rates of diarrhea by 60% but had no effect on mortality. In another trial in Iran that randomized 146 adults with HIV to 50 mg/day zinc, 200 mcg/day selenium, or placebo for 6 months and then followed participants for another 3 months, the zinc supplements decreased rates of opportunistic infections but did not improve CD4+ T-cell counts [71].

However, findings were less positive in two Cochrane Reviews and another trial (not included in either Cochrane Review) that assessed the potential benefits of supplementation with micronutrients, including zinc, or placebo in various populations with HIV. The first Cochrane Review, which focused on micronutrient supplementation for children with HIV, included two trials that administered 10 mg/day zinc with or without vitamin A for up to 15 months in a total of 128 children with HIV in South Africa [72]. One of these trials found that zinc supplementation had no beneficial effects in comparison with vitamin A, whereas the other found that the risk of watery diarrhea was 49% lower with zinc supplements than with placebo.

A subsequent Cochrane Review that evaluated micronutrient supplements for adults with HIV included six placebo-controlled trials of zinc supplements (12–50 mg/day for 14 days to 18 months or 1 weekly 90 mg dose for 6 months) in a total of 826 participants [73]. The authors concluded that although zinc supplements might improve zinc status, the supplements appeared to have little if any effect on CD4+ T-cell counts or viral load and inconclusive effects on mortality and diarrhea frequency. In a trial in 400 pregnant people with HIV in Tanzania, 25 mg/day zinc until 6 weeks after delivery did not result in any differences in birth weight, duration of gestation, or rates of fetal mortality or early mother-to-child transmission of HIV in comparison with placebo [74,75]. In addition, zinc supplementation did not affect maternal viral load or CD4+, CD8+, or CD3+ T-cell counts. However, the supplements blunted the rise in hemoglobin concentrations between baseline and 6 weeks postpartum.

More evidence is required to determine whether zinc supplements might be helpful for people with HIV.

Childhood acute diarrhea

Acute diarrhea is associated with high mortality rates among children in low-income countries, where it causes about 525,000 deaths annually [76,77]. Zinc is used to treat acute diarrhea in children, especially in low-income countries where zinc deficiency is common. Scientists believe that zinc’s beneficial effects stem from its role in supporting adaptive immunity and maintaining the mucosal integrity of the gastrointestinal system [76].

Clinical trials show that zinc supplementation helps shorten the duration of diarrhea in children in low-income countries. A 2016 Cochrane Review included 33 trials that compared the effects of zinc supplementation with placebo in 10,841 children age 1 month to 5 years with acute or persistent diarrhea [78]. Most studies were conducted in Asian countries with high rates of zinc deficiency. The investigators administered zinc in the form of zinc acetate, zinc gluconate, or zinc sulfate. The most common dose was 20 mg/day, and about half the studies administered zinc for 2 weeks. The authors concluded, on the basis of evidence of low to moderate certainty, that zinc supplementation shortens the duration of diarrhea by about half a day in children older than 6 months and reduces the likelihood that diarrhea will persist for at least 7 days by 27%. In children younger than 6 months, however, zinc supplementation did not affect mean duration of diarrhea or persistence of diarrhea for 7 days. In addition, evidence that the authors deemed to have high certainty showed that zinc supplementation reduces the duration of diarrhea in children with signs of malnutrition by about a day.

A 2018 systematic review and meta-analysis had similar findings. It examined the use of zinc alone or in combination with other treatments for acute diarrhea and gastroenteritis in 174 studies in 32,430 children, mostly from low- and middle-income countries [79]. The authors concluded that zinc was one of the most effective interventions of those examined, especially when it was combined with Saccharomyces boulardii (a probiotic) or smectite (a natural clay that contains minerals), for reducing the duration of acute diarrhea and gastroenteritis in children. Analyses showed that zinc alone or in combination reduced the duration of diarrhea by about ¾ to 1½ days.

The World Health Organization and UNICEF recommend short-term zinc supplementation—20 mg zinc per day, or 10 mg for infants under 6 months, for 10 to 14 days—to treat acute childhood diarrhea [80]. Most trials of zinc supplementation for diarrhea have been conducted in low-income countries [76]. Zinc supplements might have only a marginal effect on diarrhea duration in well-nourished children.

Age-related macular degeneration

AMD is the leading cause of significant vision loss in older people [81]. The human retina has a high zinc concentration, and research has shown that supplements containing both zinc and antioxidants might delay the progression of AMD and vision loss, possibly by preventing cellular damage in the retina [3,82,83].

Observational evidence suggests a link between higher zinc intakes and a lower risk of AMD. In a population-based cohort study in the Netherlands that included 4,170 adults age 55 or older, dietary zinc intake was inversely associated with the risk of AMD over a mean follow-up period of 8 years [84]. Similarly, a study of 2,464 adults age 49 or older in Australia found that at 5-year and 10-year follow-up, participants with intakes of zinc from food and supplements in the top decile (at least 15.8 mg/day) had a 44% lower risk of any AMD and a 46% lower risk of early AMD than participants in all other deciles [85].

Clinical trial evidence has confirmed the benefits of zinc supplementation, in combination with certain antioxidants, for slowing the progression of AMD. The Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS) was a clinical trial in 4,757 participants age 50 to 80 years with a high risk of advanced AMD (i.e., they had intermediate AMD or advanced AMD in one eye and good vision in the other eye) [83]. AREDS found that participants who took a supplement each day containing 80 mg zinc in the form of zinc oxide, 15 mg (7,500 mcg retinol activity equivalent [RAE]) beta-carotene, 180 mg (400 International Units [IU]) vitamin E in the form of dl-alpha-tocopheryl acetate, 500 mg vitamin C, and 2 mg copper for 5 years had a 25% lower risk of advanced AMD than those taking a placebo.

The follow-up AREDS2 study confirmed the value of the AREDS supplement in reducing the progression of AMD in 4,203 participants over a median follow-up period of 5 years [86]. AREDS2 also showed that a formulation providing 25 mg zinc (about one-third the amount in the original formulation) provided the same protective effect against advanced AMD. However, because AREDS2 had fewer participants than the original AREDS study, and fewer than half took the formula containing less zinc, the researchers viewed this finding as preliminary. The National Eye Institute recommends use of an AREDS formulation providing 80 mg zinc [87,88].

Individuals who have or are developing AMD should talk to their health care provider about their zinc intakes and the supplement formulations used in the AREDS studies.

Type 2 diabetes

Zinc concentrations are often low in people with T2D [2,3]. Researchers therefore hypothesize that zinc depletion might play a role in diabetes progression.

Several observational studies have found an association between zinc intakes and risk of T2D. In a systematic review and meta-analysis that included 16 observational studies conducted in the United States, Australia, Sweden, India, and Japan with a total of 146,027 men and women age 18 to 84 years, the risk of T2D was 13% lower in participants with the highest zinc intakes than in those with the lowest intakes [89]. When the researchers analyzed the influence of area of residence on the results, the associations between zinc intakes and T2D risk were significant only for studies conducted in rural areas and not those conducted in urban areas.

Clinical trials have assessed the utility of zinc supplements to reduce the risk of T2D or to manage its complications. In a 2015 Cochrane Review of the clinical trial evidence on zinc supplementation for T2D prevention, only three trials with a total of 128 participants met the inclusion criteria [90]. These studies administered 30 mg to 100 mg zinc (in the form of zinc sulfate or zinc amino chelate) per day for 4 to 12 weeks, but the quality of these studies could not be assessed because of the lack of relevant information in the study reports. The Cochrane Review authors concluded that evidence is lacking on which to base conclusions about the use of zinc supplementation to prevent T2D.

However, studies published since the Cochrane Review have had more positive findings. A systematic review and meta-analysis included nine placebo-controlled trials assessing the effects of zinc supplementation (7 mg/day to 150 mg/day) for 6 to 52 weeks on lipid profiles in a total of 424 people with T2D [91]. The supplements had beneficial effects on serum levels of triglycerides and total cholesterol but not on serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol or high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels.

A second systematic review and meta-analysis compared the effects of low-dose zinc supplements (less than 25 mg/day) with those of high-dose supplements (25 to 75 mg/day) on risk factors for T2D and cardiovascular disease in 27 clinical trials (including two from the 2015 Cochrane Review) [92]. Zinc supplements were administered for 4 weeks to 12 months (mean 11 weeks) to a total of 1,042 participants age 6 to 106 years (but most studies included adults age 20 to 70 years) and placebo to 974 participants. Although low-dose and high-dose zinc supplements had beneficial effects on several outcomes assessed, low doses of zinc and longer administration improved a larger number of risk factors. For example, studies that administered zinc supplements for less than 12 weeks had beneficial effects on fasting blood glucose, insulin resistance, and triglyceride levels, whereas studies that administered the supplements for longer had positive effects on fasting blood glucose, hemoglobin A1c, triglyceride, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol levels. Sensitivity analyses showed no significant effect of zinc dosage on these outcomes.

A third systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the effects of zinc supplements on T2D prevention and management in 32 trials that administered zinc supplements (4 to 240 mg/day zinc, mean 35 mg/day) or placebo for 1 to 12 months to a total of 1,700 adults age 18 and older with T2D (except that one included study was in children age 6 to 10 years) [93]. The supplements reduced fasting glucose, 2-hour postprandial glucose, fasting insulin, insulin resistance, glycated hemoglobin, and C-reactive protein levels. Glycemic indicators did not vary by zinc dosage (less than 30 mg/day or at least 30 mg/day) or duration of supplementation (1 month or more than 1 month).

Research has also explored the potential benefits of zinc supplementation in people with gestational diabetes. A systematic review and meta-analysis of five placebo-controlled trials that included 263 people with gestational diabetes evaluated the effects of zinc supplementation (4 to 30 mg/day zinc with or without vitamin E, magnesium, calcium, vitamin D, or a combination) on metabolic status [94]. The supplements had beneficial effects on fasting plasma glucose, insulin, and insulin resistance, but did not affect LDL or total cholesterol levels. However, because this analysis included studies that administered zinc in combination with other nutrients, the potential contribution of zinc by itself cannot be assessed.

Up to one quarter of people with T2D develop diabetic foot ulcers, which can result in amputation [95]. A Cochrane Review of nutritional interventions to treat diabetic foot ulcers included one trial in 60 participants of 50 mg zinc (in the form of zinc sulfate) or placebo for 12 weeks [96]. The authors concluded that whether zinc supplements affect diabetic foot ulcers over time is uncertain.

Overall, the evidence to date is insufficient to support any conclusions about the impact of zinc supplementation on the prevalence or severity of T2D, gestational diabetes, or diabetic foot ulcers.

Health Risks from Excessive Zinc

High zinc intakes can cause nausea, dizziness, headaches, gastric distress, vomiting, and loss of appetite [2,3]. If used for weeks, doses of 50 mg zinc or more—typically from supplements or excessive use of denture adhesive creams that contain zinc—can interfere with copper absorption (which can cause low copper status), reduce immune function, and lower HDL cholesterol levels [1-3,97]. The amount of zinc obtained from food is rarely as high as 50 mg, so the zinc in foods is unlikely to cause zinc toxicity. Very high doses of zinc from supplements (142 mg/day) might also interfere with magnesium absorption and disrupt magnesium balance [98].

According to a few reports, overuse of denture adhesive creams containing up to 34 mg zinc per gram of product can lead to neurological symptoms (including sensory ataxia and myelopathy) and anemia. Zinc-free formulations are available to prevent these effects [2,20,21].

The FNB has established ULs for zinc from food and supplements for healthy individuals on the basis of levels that have an adverse effect on copper status (Table 3) [1]. The ULs do not apply to individuals receiving zinc for medical treatment, but such individuals should be under the care of a physician.

Table 3: Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) for Zinc [1]

Age

Male

Female

Pregnancy

Lactation

Birth to 6 months

4 mg

4 mg

7–12 months

5 mg

5 mg

1–3 years

7 mg

7 mg

4–8 years

12 mg

12 mg

9–13 years

23 mg

23 mg

14–18 years

34 mg

34 mg

34 mg

34 mg

19+ years

40 mg

40 mg

40 mg

40 mg

Interactions with Medications

Zinc has the potential to interact with certain medications. In addition, several types of medications might adversely affect zinc levels. A few examples are provided below. Individuals taking these and other medications on a regular basis should discuss their zinc status with their health care providers.

Antibiotics

Both quinolone antibiotics (such as Cipro) and tetracycline antibiotics (such as Achromycin and Sumycin) might interact with zinc in the gastrointestinal tract, which could inhibit the absorption of both zinc and the antibiotic if they are taken at the same time [99,100]. Taking the antibiotic at least 2 hours before or 4–6 hours after the zinc supplement minimizes this interaction [99].

Penicillamine

Zinc can reduce the absorption and action of penicillamine, a drug used to treat rheumatoid arthritis and Wilson disease [101]. To minimize this interaction, people should take zinc supplements and penicillamine at least 1 hour apart.

Diuretics

Thiazide diuretics, such as chlorthalidone (Hygroton and Thalitone) and hydrochlorothiazide (e.g., Esidrix and HydroDIURIL), increase zinc excretion in the urine. This increased excretion, in turn, decreases serum zinc concentrations [102].

Zinc and Healthful Diets

The federal government’s 2020–2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans notes that "Because foods provide an array of nutrients and other components that have benefits for health, nutritional needs should be met primarily through foods. ... In some cases, fortified foods and dietary supplements are useful when it is not possible otherwise to meet needs for one or more nutrients (e.g., during specific life stages such as pregnancy)."

For more information about building a healthy dietary pattern, refer to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans and the USDA’s MyPlate.

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans describes a healthy eating pattern as one that

Includes a variety of vegetables, fruits, whole grains, fat-free or low-fat milk and milk products, and oils.

Some dairy products are good sources of zinc. Some ready-to-eat breakfast cereals are fortified with zinc.

Includes a variety of protein foods, including seafood, lean meats and poultry, eggs, legumes (beans and peas), nuts, seeds, and soy products.

Some meats contain high amounts of zinc. Fish and seafood are good sources of zinc.

Limits foods and beverages higher in added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium.

Limits alcoholic beverages.

Stays within your daily calorie needs.

References

Institute of Medicine. Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2001.

Ryu M-S, Aydemir TB. Zinc. In: Marriott BP, Birt DF, Stallings VA, Yates AA, eds. Present Knowledge in Nutrition. 11th ed. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell; 2020:393-408.

King JC, Cousins RJ. Zinc. In: Ross AC, Caballero B, Cousins RJ, Tucker KL, Ziegler TR, eds. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. 11th ed. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2014:189-205.

MacDonald RS. The Role of Zinc in Growth and Cell Proliferation. The Journal of Nutrition 2000;130:1500S-8S. [PubMed abstract]

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Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health. Dietary Supplement Label Database. 2021.

Brnic M, Wegmuller R, Melse-Boonstra A, Stomph T, Zeder C, Tay FM, et al. Zinc absorption by adults is similar from intrinsically labeled zinc- biofortified rice and from rice fortified with labeled zinc sulfate. J Nutr 2016;146:76-80. [PubMed abstract]

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Bailey RL, Pac SG, Fulgoni VL, 3rd, Reidy KC, Catalano PM. Estimation of total usual dietary intakes of pregnant women in the United States. JAMA Netw Open 2019;2:e195967. [PubMed abstract]

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Rondanelli M, Faliva MA, Gasparri C, Peroni G, Naso M, Picciotto G, et al. Micronutrients dietary supplementation advices for celiac patients on long-term gluten-free diet with good compliance: a review. Medicina (Kaunas) 2019;55. [PubMed abstract]

Bakaloudi DR, Halloran A, Rippin HL, Oikonomidou AC, Dardavesis TI, Williams J, et al. Intake and adequacy of the vegan diet. A systematic review of the evidence. Clin Nutr 2021;40:3503-21. [PubMed abstract]

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Keikha M, Shayan-Moghadam R, Bahreynian M, Kelishadi R. Nutritional supplements and mother's milk composition: a systematic review of interventional studies. Int Breastfeed J 2021;16:1. [PubMed abstract]

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Ackland ML, Michalczyk AA. Zinc and infant nutrition. Arch Biochem Biophys 2016;611:51-7. [PubMed abstract]

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Hulisz D. Efficacy of zinc against common cold viruses: an overview. J Am Pharm Assoc (2003) 2004;44:594-603. [PubMed abstract]

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Hunter J, Arentz S, Goldenberg J, Yang G, Beardsley J, Myers SP, et al. Zinc for the prevention or treatment of acute viral respiratory tract infections in adults: a rapid systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ Open 2021;11:e047474. [PubMed abstract]

Hemila H. Zinc lozenges and the common cold: a meta-analysis comparing zinc acetate and zinc gluconate, and the role of zinc dosage. JRSM Open 2017;8:2054270417694291. [PubMed abstract]

Hemilä H. Zinc lozenges may shorten the duration of colds: a systematic review. Open Respir Med J 2011;5:51-8. [PubMed abstract]

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Prasad AS, Beck FW, Bao B, Snell D, Fitzgerald JT. Duration and severity of symptoms and levels of plasma interleukin-1 receptor antagonist, soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor, and adhesion molecules in patients with common cold treated with zinc acetate. J Infect Dis 2008;197:795-802. [PubMed abstract]

Turner RB, Cetnarowski WE. Effect of treatment with zinc gluconate or zinc acetate on experimental and natural colds. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:1202-8. [PubMed abstract]

Lassi ZS, Moin A, Bhutta ZA. Zinc supplementation for the prevention of pneumonia in children aged 2 months to 59 months. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016;12:Cd005978. [PubMed abstract]

Saleh NY, Abo El Fotoh WMM. Low serum zinc level: The relationship with severe pneumonia and survival in critically ill children. Int J Clin Pract 2018;72:e13211. [PubMed abstract]

Sakulchit T, Goldman RD. Zinc supplementation for pediatric pneumonia. Can Fam Physician 2017;63:763-5. [PubMed abstract]

Black RE. Zinc deficiency, infectious disease and mortality in the developing world. J Nutr 2003;133:1485s-9s. [PubMed abstract]

Walker CLF, Rudan I, Liu L, Nair H, Theodoratou E, Bhutta ZA, et al. Global burden of childhood pneumonia and diarrhoea. Lancet 2013;381:1405-16. [PubMed abstract]

Brown N, Kukka AJ, Mårtensson A. Efficacy of zinc as adjunctive pneumonia treatment in children aged 2 to 60 months in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Paediatr Open 2020;4:e000662. [PubMed abstract]

Wang L, Song Y. Efficacy of zinc given as an adjunct to the treatment of severe pneumonia: A meta-analysis of randomized, double-blind and placebo-controlled trials. Clin Respir J 2018;12:857-64. [PubMed abstract]

Baum MK, Lai S, Sales S, Page JB, Campa A. Randomized, controlled clinical trial of zinc supplementation to prevent immunological failure in HIV-infected adults. Clin Infect Dis 2010;50:1653-60. [PubMed abstract]

Hadadi A, Ostovar A, Edalat Noor B, Rasoolinejad M, Haji Abdolbaghi M, Yousefi S, et al. The effect of selenium and zinc on CD4(+) count and opportunistic infections in HIV/AIDS patients: a randomized double blind trial. Acta Clin Belg 2020;75:170-6. [PubMed abstract]

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Fawzi WW, Villamor E, Msamanga GI, Antelman G, Aboud S, Urassa W, et al. Trial of zinc supplements in relation to pregnancy outcomes, hematologic indicators, and T cell counts among HIV-1-infected women in Tanzania. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;81:161-7. [PubMed abstract]

Villamor E, Aboud S, Koulinska IN, Kupka R, Urassa W, Chaplin B, et al. Zinc supplementation to HIV-1-infected pregnant women: effects on maternal anthropometry, viral load, and early mother-to-child transmission. Eur J Clin Nutr 2006;60:862-9. [PubMed abstract]

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This fact sheet by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) provides information that should not take the place of medical advice. We encourage you to talk to your health care providers (doctor, registered dietitian, pharmacist, etc.) about your interest in, questions about, or use of dietary supplements and what may be best for your overall health. Any mention in this publication of a specific product or service, or recommendation from an organization or professional society, does not represent an endorsement by ODS of that product, service, or expert advice.

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Zinc: Benefits, Deficiency, Food Sources and Side Effects

Zinc: Benefits, Deficiency, Food Sources and Side Effects

Health ConditionsFeaturedBreast CancerIBD MigraineMultiple Sclerosis (MS)Rheumatoid ArthritisType 2 DiabetesSponsored TopicsArticlesAcid RefluxADHDAllergiesAlzheimer's & DementiaBipolar DisorderCancerCrohn's DiseaseChronic PainCold & FluCOPDDepressionFibromyalgiaHeart DiseaseHigh CholesterolHIVHypertensionIPFOsteoarthritisPsoriasisSkin Disorders and CareSTDsDiscoverWellness TopicsNutritionFitnessSkin CareSexual HealthWomen's HealthMental Well-BeingSleepProduct ReviewsVitamins & SupplementsSleepMental HealthNutritionAt-Home TestingCBDMen’s HealthOriginal SeriesFresh Food FastDiagnosis DiariesYou’re Not AlonePresent TenseVideo SeriesYouth in FocusHealthy HarvestThrough An Artist's EyeFuture of HealthPlanHealth ChallengesMindful EatingSugar SavvyMove Your BodyGut HealthMood FoodsAlign Your SpineFind CarePrimary CareMental HealthOB-GYNDermatologistsNeurologistsCardiologistsOrthopedistsLifestyle QuizzesWeight ManagementAm I Depressed? A Quiz for TeensAre You a Workaholic?How Well Do You Sleep?Tools & ResourcesHealth NewsFind a DietFind Healthy SnacksDrugs A-ZHealth A-ZConnectFind Your Bezzy CommunityBreast CancerInflammatory Bowel DiseasePsoriatic ArthritisMigraineMultiple SclerosisPsoriasisFollow us on social mediaHealthlineHealth ConditionsDiscoverPlanConnectSubscribeNutritionSpecial DietsHealthy EatingFood FreedomConditionsFeel Good FoodProductsVitamins & SupplementsSustainabilityWeight ManagementNutritionEvidence BasedZinc: Everything You Need to KnowMedically reviewed by Amy Richter, RD, Nutrition — By Jillian Kubala, MS, RD — Updated on November 28, 2022What it isFunctionBenefitsDeficiencySourcesToxicity and dosageBottom lineZinc is an essential nutrient found in a variety of plant and animal foods, along with supplements. It plays a key role in skin health, immune function, and cell growth and may protect against acne, inflammation, and other conditions.Zinc is a nutrient that plays many vital roles in your body.Because your body doesn’t naturally produce zinc, you must obtain it through food or supplements.This article explains everything you need to know about zinc, including its functions, health benefits, dosage recommendations, and potential side effects.What is zinc?Zinc is considered an essential nutrient, meaning that your body can’t produce or store it.For this reason, you must get a constant supply through your diet.Zinc is required for numerous processes in your body, including (1):gene expressionenzymatic reactionsimmune functionprotein synthesisDNA synthesiswound healinggrowth and developmentZinc is naturally found in a wide variety of both plant and animal foods.Foods that don’t naturally contain this mineral, such as breakfast cereals and snack bars, are often fortified with synthetic forms of zinc.You can also take zinc supplements or multi-nutrient supplements that provide zinc.Because of its role in immune function, zinc is likewise added to some lozenges and other natural cold treatments (2).SummaryZinc is an essential mineral that your body does not make on its own. It aids growth, DNA synthesis, immune function, and more.Role in your bodyZinc is a vital mineral that your body uses in countless ways. In fact, zinc is the second-most abundant trace mineral in your body — after iron — and is present in every cell (3).Zinc is necessary for the activity of over 300 enzymes that aid in metabolism, digestion, nerve function, and many other processes (4).In addition, it’s critical for the development and function of immune cells (5).This mineral is also fundamental to skin health, DNA synthesis, and protein production (3).What’s more, body growth and development relies on zinc because of its role in cell growth and division (6).Zinc is also needed for your senses of taste and smell. Because one of the enzymes crucial for proper taste and smell is dependent on this nutrient, a zinc deficiency can reduce your ability to taste or smell (7).SummaryZinc is essential for cell growth and division, immune function, enzyme reactions, DNA synthesis, and protein production.Health benefitsResearch shows that zinc has numerous health benefits.Boosts your immune systemZinc helps keep your immune system strong.Because it is necessary for immune cell function and cell signaling, a deficiency can lead to a weakened immune response (7).Zinc supplements stimulate particular immune cells and reduce oxidative stress.For example, a review of seven studies demonstrated that 80–92 milligrams (mg) per day of zinc may reduce the length of the common cold by up to 33% (8).What’s more, some older research suggests that zinc supplements significantly reduce the risk of infections and promote immune response in older adults (9).Accelerates wound healingZinc is commonly used in hospitals as a treatment for burns, certain ulcers, and other skin injuries (10).Because this mineral plays critical roles in collagen synthesis, immune function, and inflammatory response, it is necessary for proper healing.In fact, your skin holds a relatively high amount — about 5% — of your body’s zinc content (10).While a zinc deficiency can slow wound healing, supplementing with zinc can speed recovery in people with wounds.For example, in a 12-week study in 60 people with diabetic foot ulcers, those treated with 50 mg of zinc per day experienced significant reductions in ulcer size compared to a placebo group (11).May reduce the risk of certain age-related diseasesZinc may significantly reduce your risk of age-related diseases, such as pneumonia, infection, and age-related macular degeneration (AMD).Zinc may relieve oxidative stress and improve immune response by boosting the activity of T-cells and natural killer cells, which help protect your body from infection (12).Older adults who supplement with zinc in some older studies experience improved influenza vaccination response, reduced risk of pneumonia, and boosted mental performance (13, 14, 15).In fact, one 2007 study determined that 45 mg per day of elemental zinc may decrease the incidence of infection in older adults by nearly 66% (16).Additionally, in a 2013 study in over 4,200 people, taking daily antioxidant supplements — vitamin E, vitamin C, and beta carotene — plus 80 mg of zinc decreased vision loss and significantly reduced the risk of advanced AMD (17).May help treat acneAcne is a common skin disease that is estimated to affect up to 9.4% of the global population (18).Acne is driven by obstruction of oil-producing glands, bacteria, and inflammation (19).Studies suggest that both topical and oral zinc treatments can effectively treat acne by reducing inflammation, inhibiting the growth of P. acnes bacteria, and suppressing oil gland activity (20).People with acne tend to have lower levels of zinc. Therefore, supplements may help reduce symptoms (21).Decreases inflammationZinc decreases oxidative stress and reduces levels of certain inflammatory proteins in your body (22).Oxidative stress leads to chronic inflammation, a contributing factor in a wide array of chronic illnesses, such as heart disease, cancer, and mental decline (23).In a 2010 study in 40 older adults, those who took 45 mg of zinc per day experienced greater reductions in inflammatory markers than a placebo group (24).SummaryZinc may effectively reduce inflammation, boost immune health, reduce your risk of age-related diseases, speed wound healing, and improve acne symptoms.Deficiency symptomsAlthough severe zinc deficiency is rare, it can occur in people with rare genetic mutations, breastfeeding infants whose mothers don’t have enough zinc, people with alcohol addictions, and anyone taking certain immune-suppressing medications.Symptoms of severe zinc deficiency include impaired growth and development, delayed sexual maturity, skin rashes, chronic diarrhea, impaired wound healing, and behavioral issues (25).Milder forms of zinc deficiency are more common, especially in children in developing countries where diets are often lacking in important nutrients.It is estimated that around 2 billion people worldwide are deficient in zinc due to inadequate dietary intake (7).Since zinc deficiency impairs your immune system — increasing the chances of infection — zinc deficiency is thought to cause over 450,000 deaths in children under 5 every year (26).Those at risk of zinc deficiency include (27):people with gastrointestinal diseases like Crohn’s diseasevegetarians and veganspeople who are pregnant or breastfeedingolder infants who are exclusively breastfedpeople with sickle cell anemiapeople who are malnourished, including those with anorexia or bulimiapeople with chronic kidney diseasepeople with alcohol use disorderSymptoms of mild zinc deficiency include diarrhea, decreased immunity, thinning hair, impaired taste or smell, dry skin, fertility issues, and impaired wound healing (7, 28).Zinc deficiency is difficult to detect using laboratory tests due to your body’s tight control over zinc levels. Thus, you may still be deficient even if tests indicate normal levels. Doctors consider other risk factors — such as poor dietary intake and genetics — alongside blood results when determining whether you need supplements (29).SummaryRisk factors for zinc deficiency include insufficient dietary intake, poor absorption, alcoholism, genetic mutations, and old age.Food sourcesMany animal and plant foods are naturally rich in zinc, making it easy for most people to consume adequate amounts.Foods highest in zinc include (30):Shellfish: oysters, crab, mussels, lobster, and clamsMeat: beef, pork, lamb, and bisonPoultry: turkey and chickenFish: flounder, sardines, salmon, and soleLegumes: chickpeas, lentils, black beans, kidney beans, etc.Nuts and seeds: pumpkin seeds, cashews, hemp seeds, etc.Dairy products: milk, yogurt, and cheeseEggsWhole grains: oats, quinoa, brown rice, etc.Certain vegetables: mushrooms, kale, peas, asparagus, and beet greensAnimal products, such as meat and shellfish, contain high amounts of zinc in a form that your body easily absorbs.Keep in mind that zinc found in plant-based sources like legumes and whole grains is absorbed less efficiently because of other plant compounds that inhibit absorption (31).While many foods are naturally high in zinc, certain foods — such as ready-to-eat breakfast cereals and snack bars — are fortified with zinc (32).SummaryZinc occurs naturally in foods like shellfish, meat, poultry, and dairy, and is added to other foods, such as breakfast cereals and snack bars.Toxicity and dosage recommendationsJust as a deficiency in zinc can cause health complications, excessive intake can also lead to negative side effects.The most common cause of zinc toxicity is too much supplemental zinc, which can cause both acute and chronic symptoms (33).Symptoms of toxicity include (33):nausea and vomitingdiarrheaabdominal cramps and painheadachesTaking too much zinc can also cause deficiencies in other nutrients.For example, chronic high zinc ingestion can interfere with your absorption of copper and iron.Reductions in copper levels have even been reported in people consuming only moderately high doses of zinc — 60 mg per day — for 10 weeks (34).Recommended dosagesIn order to avoid overconsumption, stay away from high dose zinc supplements unless recommended by a doctor.The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is 11 mg for adult males and 8 mg for adult females (1).People who are pregnant and breastfeeding should consume 11 and 12 mg per day, respectively (35).Unless a medical condition is hindering absorption, you should easily reach the RDA for zinc through diet alone.However, people with certain dietary restrictions, including vegans and vegetarians, may have difficulty meeting their needs through diet alone (1).The tolerable upper level for zinc is 40 mg per day. However, this does not apply to people with zinc deficiencies, who may need to take high dose supplements (1).If you take supplements, choose absorbable forms such as zinc citrate or zinc gluconate rather than zinc oxide, which is poorly absorbed (36).SummaryZinc toxicity may cause diarrhea, headache, abdominal cramps, and reduced immunity. Most people can obtain their daily dose of zinc through diet alone.The bottom lineZinc is needed for DNA synthesis, immune function, metabolism, and growth.It may reduce inflammation and your risk of some age-related diseases.Most people meet the RDA of 11 mg for males and 8 mg for females through diet, but older adults, those following restrictive diets, and people with conditions that inhibit zinc absorption may need to supplement.Because high dose zinc supplements can lead to dangerous side effects, it’s important to stick to recommendations and only take supplements when necessary. Last medically reviewed on November 28, 2022How we reviewed this article:HistoryOur experts continually monitor the health and wellness space, and we update our articles when new information becomes available.Current VersionNov 28, 2022Written ByJillian Kubala MS, RDEdited ByRachael Ajmera, MS, RDMedically Reviewed ByAmy Richter, MS, RDNov 14, 2018Written ByJillian Kubala MS, RDEdited ByElizabeth DonovanShare this articleMedically reviewed by Amy Richter, RD, Nutrition — By Jillian Kubala, MS, RD — Updated on November 28, 2022Read this nextZinc DeficiencyMedically reviewed by Debra Sullivan, Ph.D., MSN, R.N., CNE, COILearn about the symptoms of zinc deficiency and how to treat it.READ MORE7 Signs and Symptoms of Zinc OverdoseBy Makayla Meixner MS, RDNZinc is absolutely essential for good health, but consuming too much can have several side effects. Here are 7 signs and symptoms of zinc overdose.READ MOREConnecting Testosterone and ZincMedically reviewed by Alana Biggers, M.D., MPHREAD MORECan You Use Zinc for Acne Spots and Scars?Medically reviewed by Cynthia Cobb, DNP, APRN, WHNP-BC, FAANPZinc is one of the most widely studied forms of acne treatment. Here’s how it works, whether adding it to your diet is enough, products to try, and…READ MOREMalanga Health Benefits and MoreMedically reviewed by Natalie Olsen, R.D., L.D., ACSM EP-CREAD MOREAre mindbodygreen Supplements Worth It? Our Testers and Dietitians ExplainBy Kelsey Kunik, RDNMindBodyGreen provides third-party-tested supplements made with high quality ingredients. Our testers and dietitians discuss whether MindBodyGreen…READ MOREAre Vitamins Good for Athletes?Vitamins are for athletes to stay healthy. You may get all you need from the food you eat. Some athletes may benefits from vitamin supplements.READ MORE12 Health Benefits of DHA (Docosahexaenoic Acid)By Marsha McCulloch, MS, RDDocosahexaenoic acid, or DHA, is a type of omega-3 fat that may improve many aspects of your health, from your brain to your heart. Here are 12…READ MOREAbout UsContact UsPrivacy PolicyPrivacy SettingsAdvertising PolicyHealth TopicsMedical AffairsContent IntegrityNewsletters© 2024 Healthline Media LLC. All rights reserved. Our website services, content, and products are for informational purposes only. Healthline Media does not provide medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. See additional information. See additional information.© 2024 Healthline Media LLC. All rights reserved. Our website services, content, and products are for informational purposes only. Healthline Media does not provide medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. See additional information. 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Key facts

Zinc is a mineral that is essential for many of the body's normal functions and systems.

Zinc also supports normal growth and development during pregnancy, childhood and adolescence.

Having enough zinc is important for skin health and effective wound healing.

Zinc is found in many food sources, but is better absorbed from animal-based foods, so vegans and vegetarians need to be extra careful to ensure they get enough.

Too much zinc can cause side effects, so if you decide to take a supplement, don't take more than 40mg of extra zinc, unless you are advised to by your doctor.

On this page

What is zinc?

What does zinc do?

How much zinc do I need?

How do I get enough zinc?

Is it possible to have too much zinc?

Related information on Australian websites

What is zinc?

Zinc is a mineral that is essential for many of the body's normal functions and systems, including:

the immune system

wound healing

blood clotting

thyroid function

senses of taste and smell

Zinc also supports normal growth and development during pregnancy, childhood and adolescence.

What does zinc do?

Zinc is naturally found in cells throughout the body. It helps the cells to grow and divide, and is necessary for the activity of enzymes, proteins, and DNA (your genes). The body cannot make zinc, so you need to get it from the food you eat. It is mainly stored in the muscle and bone.

Zinc is important for many of the body's functions:

Immune system: The body needs zinc to fight off infection. People who don't have enough zinc in their body may be at greater risk of infections. Children and older people are at greater risk.

Wound healing: Zinc supports skin health. If you don't have enough zinc in your diet, it can lead to skin changes that can look like eczema at first. Zinc supplements may be used to help people who have burns or leg ulcers that heal very slowly or don't heal.

Taste and smell: Zinc is very important for one of the enzymes you need so that you are able to taste and smell.

Having enough zinc is especially important during pregnancy, and for children to ensure they grow and develop properly.

Can I have too much or too little zinc?

Having the right amount of zinc (not too much, or too little) is important. An imbalance of potassium can lead to health problems.

Low zinc

Healthy people who don't have enough zinc in their diet may have symptoms including:

hair loss

diarrhoea

delayed sexual development in adolescents

eye and skin problems

loss of appetite

High zinc

Taking too much zinc can lead to:

nausea and vomiting

diarrhoea

abdominal (stomach) cramps

headaches

It can also interfere with other nutrients you need, such as copper and iron.

You should not take supplements with more than 40mg of extra zinc a day, unless your doctor tells you to.

How much zinc do I need?

How much zinc you need depends on your age, sex and stage of life:

Stage of life

Recommended daily intake for zinc (milligrams per day)

0 to 6 months

2

7 to 12 months

3

1 to 3 years

3

4 to 8 years

4

9 to 13 years

6

14 to 18 years

Males

13

Females

7

Adult males

14

Adult females

8

During pregnancy

10 to 11

While breastfeeding

11 to 12

Source: Eat for health

How do I get enough zinc?

Zinc is found in many foods including:

meat

fish and seafood

poultry

cereals and whole grains

nuts, seeds and legumes

dairy foods

The amount of zinc the body can absorb is affected by how much protein is in the diet. Zinc tends to be better absorbed from animal-based foods than plant-based foods. This means that vegetarians and vegans, or people on long-term restricted diets, are more likely to experience zinc deficiency.

Some people may need more zinc than they can get from food alone. Zinc can be found in zinc supplements or multivitamin supplements and cold remedies that contain zinc.

Read more on foods high in zinc.

Resources and support

Visit Nutrition Australia for information about healthy eating.

Eat for Health uses the Australian dietary guidelines to provide advice about the amount and types of food you need.

Sources:

Eat For Health

(Nutrient Reference Values – Zinc),

Harvard School of Public Health

(Zinc),

Jean Hailes for Women's Health

(Therapeutic doses of supplements),

The Australasian College of Dermatologists

(Zinc Deficiency and the Skin),

International Journal of Molecular Sciences

(Zinc and Autophagy in Age-Related Macular Degeneration)

Learn more here about the development and quality assurance of healthdirect content.

Last reviewed: June 2023

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Zinc - Mayo Clinic

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ZincBy Mayo Clinic StaffOverview

Zinc, a nutrient found throughout your body, helps your immune system and metabolism function. Zinc is also important to wound healing and your sense of taste and smell.

With a varied diet, your body usually gets enough zinc. Food sources of zinc include chicken, red meat and fortified breakfast cereals.

People use oral zinc to help treat colds, but it can decrease the effectiveness of certain drugs and cause side effects.

The recommended daily amount of zinc is 8 milligrams (mg) for women and 11 mg for adult men.

What the research says

Research on oral zinc for specific conditions shows:

Zinc deficiency. People who have low levels of zinc appear to benefit most from zinc supplements. This kind of deficiency isn't common in the United States.

Colds. Evidence suggests that if zinc lozenges or syrup is taken within 24 hours after cold symptoms start, the supplement can help shorten the length of colds. However, use of intranasal zinc has been linked with the loss of the sense of smell, in some cases long term or permanently.

Wound healing. People with skin ulcers and low levels of zinc might benefit from oral zinc supplements.

Diarrhea. Oral zinc supplements can reduce the symptoms of diarrhea in children with low levels of zinc, such as from malnutrition. There isn't enough evidence to recommend use of oral zinc for children with diarrhea who have a healthy, varied diet.

Age-related macular degeneration. Research suggests that oral zinc might slow the progression of this eye disease.

Zinc that's used topically is known as zinc oxide. Zinc oxide cream, ointment or paste is applied to the skin to prevent conditions such as diaper rash and sunburn.

Our take

Generally safe

Oral zinc supplements might benefit people with low levels of zinc. Taken soon after cold symptoms appear, zinc might also shorten the length of a cold.

However, don't use intranasal zinc, which has been linked with the loss of the sense of smell.

Safety and side effects

Oral zinc can cause:

Indigestion

Diarrhea

Headache

Nausea

Vomiting

When oral zinc is taken long term and in high doses it can cause copper deficiency. People with low copper levels might experience neurological issues, such as numbness and weakness in the arms and legs.

The National Institutes of Health considers 40 mg of zinc a day to be the upper limit dose for adults and 4 mg of zinc a day for infants under age 6 months.

Don't use intranasal zinc. This form of zinc has been linked with the loss of the sense of smell.

Interactions

Possible interactions include:

Antibiotics. Using oral zinc while you're taking quinolone or tetracycline antibiotics can interfere with their ability to fight bacteria. Taking the antibiotic two hours before or four to six hours after taking zinc can minimize this effect.

Penicillamine. Using oral zinc with the rheumatoid arthritis drug penicillamine (Cuprimine, Depen) can reduce the drug's ability to ease arthritis symptoms. Taking zinc at least two hours before or after taking the drug might minimize this effect.

Thiazide diuretics. These blood pressure drugs increase the amount of zinc lost in urine.

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Show references

5 Tips: Natural products for the flu and colds: What does the science say? National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. https://nccih.nih.gov/health/tips/flucold.htm. Accessed Aug. 8, 2017.

Zinc. Office of Dietary Supplements, https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Zinc-Consumer/#h8. Accessed Aug. 8, 2017.

Zinc. Micromedex 2.0 Healthcare Series. http://www.micromedexsolutions.com. Accessed Aug. 8, 2017.

Zinc supplements. Facts & Comparisons eAnswers. http://www.wolterskluwercdi.com/facts-comparisons-online/. Accessed Aug. 8, 2017.

Pazirandeh S. Overview of dietary trace minerals. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed Aug. 8, 2017.

Zinc oxide: Drug information. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed Aug. 8, 2017.

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Life Spreads Through Universe in Cosmic Dust, Paper Suggests

zinc (Zn), chemical element, a low-melting metal of Group 12 (IIb, or zinc group) of the periodic table, that is essential to life and is one of the most widely used metals. Zinc is of considerable commercial importance.Element Propertiesatomic number30atomic weight65.39melting point420 °C (788 °F)boiling point907 °C (1,665 °F)density7.133 grams/cm3 at 25 °C (68 °F)oxidation state+2electron configuration[Ar]3d104s2 Occurrence, uses, and properties A little more abundant than copper, zinc makes up an average of 65 grams (2.3 ounces) of every ton of Earth’s crust. The chief zinc mineral is the sulfide sphalerite (zinc blende), which, together with its oxidation products smithsonite and hemimorphite, constitute nearly all of the world’s zinc ore. Native zinc has been reported from Australia, New Zealand, and the United States, and the leading early 21st-century producers of zinc are China, Australia and Peru. For zinc’s mineralogical properties, see native element. Zinc is an essential trace element in the human body, where it is found in high concentration in the red blood cells as an essential part of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which promotes many reactions relating to carbon dioxide metabolism. The zinc present in the pancreas may aid in the storage of insulin. Zinc is a component of some enzymes that digest protein in the gastrointestinal tract. Zinc deficiency in nut-bearing and fruit trees causes such diseases as pecan rosette, little leaf, and mottle leaf. Zinc functions in the hemosycotypsin of snails’ blood to transport oxygen in a way analogous to iron in the hemoglobin of human blood. Metallic zinc is produced by roasting the sulfide ores and then either leaching the oxidized product in sulfuric acid or smelting it in a blast furnace. Zinc is won from the leach solution by electrolysis or is condensed from the blast furnace gas and then distilled of impurities. For specific information on the mining, recovery, and refining of zinc, see zinc processing.

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118 Names and Symbols of the Periodic Table Quiz

zinc-coated galvanized pipeZinc-coated galvanized ventilation-pipe ductwork.(more)steel galvanized with zincRolls of sheet steel galvanized with zinc in a factory warehouse.(more)The major uses of zinc metal are in galvanizing iron and steel against corrosion and in making brasses and alloys for die-casting. Zinc itself forms an impervious coating of its oxide on exposure to the atmosphere, and hence the metal is more resistant to ordinary atmospheres than iron and corrodes at a much lower rate. In addition, because zinc tends to oxidize in preference to iron, some protection is afforded the steel surface even if some of it is exposed through cracks. The zinc coating is formed either by hot-dip galvanizing or electrogalvanizing. Hot-dip galvanizing is the most common procedure for coating steel with zinc. This may be a batch process known as general galvanizing or a continuous coating of coils of steel strip. In general galvanizing, steel is pickled in acid, treated with fluxing agents, and then dipped in a bath of molten zinc at about 450 °C (840 °F). Layers of iron-zinc alloy are formed on the surface and are topped with an outer layer of zinc. Objects so treated range from small nuts and bolts to steel window frames and large girders used in construction. An ordinary grade of zinc containing up to 1.5 percent lead is normally used in this process.

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In electrogalvanizing, zinc is deposited on a steel strop in as many as 20 consecutive electrolytic coating cells. There are several successful cell designs; the simple vertical cell is discussed here to explain the principle. The strip, connected to the negative side of a direct current through large-diameter conductor rolls located above and between two cells, is dipped into a tank of electrolyte by a submerged sink roll. Partially submerged anodes, opposing the strip, are connected to the positive side of the electric current by heavy bus bars. Zinc cations (i.e., positively charged zinc atoms) present in the electrolyte are converted by the current into regular zinc atoms, which deposit on the strip. The bath is supplied with zinc cations either by zinc anodes, which are continuously dissolved by the direct current, or by zinc compounds continuously added to the electrolyte. In the latter case the anodes are made of insoluble materials, such as titanium coated with iridium oxide. The electrolyte is an acidic solution of zinc sulfide or zinc chloride with other bath additions to improve the quality of the coating and the current efficiency. Coating thickness is easier to control than in the hot-dip process because of the good relationship between electrical current and deposited zinc. The negative electrode (outside can) in one common type of electric dry cell is composed of zinc. Another important series of alloys are those formed by the addition of 4 to 5 percent aluminum to zinc; these have a relatively low melting point but possess good mechanical properties and can be cast under pressure in steel dies. Considerable quantities of zinc in the rolled form are used for roofing, particularly in Europe; small additions of copper and titanium improve creep resistance—i.e., resistance to gradual deformation. Freshly cast zinc has a bluish silver surface but slowly oxidizes in air to form a grayish protective oxide film. Highly pure zinc (99.99 percent) is ductile; the so-called prime western grade (99.8 percent pure) is brittle when cold but above 100 °C (212 °F) can be rolled into sheets that remain flexible. Zinc crystallizes in the hexagonal close-packed structure. When iron and zinc together are exposed to a corrosive medium, they constitute an electrolytic cell, and the zinc is attacked (oxidized to the Zn2+ ion) preferentially because of its higher electrode potential. This so-called sacrificial protection, coupled with the much greater corrosion resistance of zinc under atmospheric conditions, is the basis for galvanizing.

Natural zinc is a mixture of five stable isotopes: 64Zn (48.6 percent), 66Zn (27.9 percent), 67Zn (4.1 percent), 68Zn (18.8 percent), and 70Zn (0.6 percent).

Zinc | The Nutrition Source | Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health

Zinc | The Nutrition Source | Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health

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Zinc

Zinc is a trace mineral, meaning that the body only needs small amounts, and yet it is necessary for almost 100 enzymes to carry out vital chemical reactions. It is a major player in the creation of DNA, growth of cells, building proteins, healing damaged tissue, and supporting a healthy immune system. [1] Because it helps cells to grow and multiply, adequate zinc is required during times of rapid growth, such as childhood, adolescence, and pregnancy. Zinc is also involved with the senses of taste and smell.

Recommended Amounts 

RDA:  The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for adults 19+ years is 11 mg a day for men and 8 mg for women. Pregnancy and lactation requires slightly more at 11 mg and 12 mg, respectively.

UL:  The Tolerable Upper Intake Level is the maximum daily intake unlikely to cause harmful effects on health. The UL for zinc is 40 mg daily for all males and females ages 19+ years.

Zinc and Health

Immunity

Because zinc supports the growth and normal functioning of immune cells, even a mild or moderate deficiency can slow down the activity of lymphocytes, neutrophils, and macrophages that protect the body from viruses and bacteria. Zinc deficiency is a common health problem in children from low and middle-income countries that contributes to stunting of growth, diarrhea, pneumonia, and malaria. [2] The elderly who may have low zinc intakes from a poor appetite due to multiple diseases and medications are at risk for infections, such as pneumonia and skin ulcers, as reviewed in the next section.

Wound healing

Adequate zinc is needed to create new cells, particularly collagen and fiber-like tissues, a necessary function in repairing damaged cells. Zinc also supports immune cell activity that combats inflammation from a wound. Therefore the greatest benefit of zinc appears to be in people who are deficient in the mineral and who have severe wounds such as decubitus ulcers or extensive burns. Because people with these conditions have higher zinc needs and may have poor appetites, supplements or topical creams are used rather than relying on food intake alone. In these cases, zinc is often combined with other nutrients like protein, vitamin C, and L-arginine that also promote wound healing such as in a nutritional shake. [3] However, a benefit of zinc supplementation has not been shown in people with skin ulcers who have normal blood levels of zinc. [4]

Food Sources

Meats, poultry, and seafood are rich in zinc. Some plant foods like legumes and whole grains are also good sources of zinc, but they also contain phytates that can bind to the mineral, lowering its absorption.

Shellfish: oysters, crab, lobster

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Supplements

Zinc is available in supplement form as pills and lozenges. Excess zinc can interfere with the absorption of iron and copper. High doses can also cause nausea and even vomiting. Therefore it is important not to take supplemental zinc unless it is known that the diet is low in foods containing zinc or a zinc deficiency is confirmed. A registered dietitian can help to evaluate one’s diet and determine if zinc intake is low.

What about the use of zinc lozenges for colds?In the 1990s, a new proposed remedy for the common cold in the form of zinc lozenges became almost as popular as chicken soup. The lozenge form was important because the zinc needed to dissolve slowly to coat the mouth and throat, where a cold virus thrives. Other forms like nasal and throat sprays were not preferred due to causing a loss of smell in some people.

Zinc is believed to prevent cold viruses from spreading and by reducing inflammation, which may shorten the duration of a cold. Research has shown mixed results of their effectiveness due to differences in the form of zinc, the dosage, and how long it was used. Yet some clinical trials support its effectiveness. A Cochrane review of clinical trials found that zinc lozenges did not prevent colds, but if taken within a day of the onset of cold symptoms (sore throat, sniffles), the lozenges could tame its severity. [5] However, it is noted that some of the trials were funded by pharmaceutical companies who may have had financial interest in or produced zinc lozenges.

Zinc lozenges can carry a few unpleasant side effects like having a metallic flavor and causing nausea, but some people would gladly trade these symptoms for a bout with a nasty cold.

Signs of Deficiency and Toxicity

Deficiency

A zinc deficiency is rare and is seen most commonly in people who do not absorb zinc well due to digestive disorders such as inflammatory bowel diseases or who have undergone gastrointestinal surgery. Those with chronic liver or kidney disease are also at risk. Excessive or prolonged diarrhea can lead to a zinc deficiency, as well as severe conditions with increased zinc needs like burns and sepsis (an infection caused by harmful bacteria entering the blood). Zinc is more efficiently absorbed when taken in smaller doses and in people who are deficient in the mineral.

Other groups at risk for zinc deficiency:

Pregnant women. Increased zinc needs for the fetus and during lactation.

Low amounts of zinc in human breast milk. High amounts of calcium and phosphorus in cow’s milk can lower zinc absorption.

Vegetarians/vegans. Zinc intake is limited to plant foods like whole grains that have lower bioavailability than from animal foods.

Decreased absorption and increased loss of zinc through the urine.

Signs of deficiency include:

Loss of taste or smell

Poor appetite

Depressed mood

Decreased immunity

Delayed wound healing

Diarrhea

Hair loss

Toxicity

Toxicity occurs almost exclusively from zinc supplements rather than food. There have been no reports of eating too much zinc from the diet alone. [1]

Signs of toxicity include:

Nausea, vomiting

Poor appetite

Abdominal pain or cramping

Headaches

Diarrhea 

Did You Know?

Zinc oxide was used in ointments to treat wounds, as noted in ancient Greek medical texts. Today, zinc oxide is still a popular over-the-counter treatment skin treatment. It can defend against sunburns by reflecting and scattering ultraviolet rays so they do not penetrate the skin. It is also used to treat inflamed skin conditions like burns, eczema, bedsores, and diaper rash. The compound forms a protective barrier on the skin’s surface, repelling away moisture and allowing the skin to heal. It may also aid enzymes to break down damaged collagen tissue so that new tissue can be formed. No negative side effects have been reported.

Related

Vitamins and Minerals

References

Institute of Medicine. Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc: a Report of the Panel on Micronutrients. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2001. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK222317/ Accessed 10/17/2019.

Mayo‐Wilson E, Junior JA, Imdad A, Dean S, Chan XH, Chan ES, Jaswal A, Bhutta ZA. Zinc supplementation for preventing mortality, morbidity, and growth failure in children aged 6 months to 12 years of age. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2014(5).

Ellinger S, Stehle P. Efficacy of vitamin supplementation in situations with wound healing disorders: results from clinical intervention studies. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care. 2009 Nov 1;12(6):588-95.

Wilkinson EA. Oral zinc for arterial and venous leg ulcers. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2014(9).

Singh M, Das RR. Zinc for the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Feb 16;(2):CD001364.

Last reviewed March 2023

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ZINC: Overview, Uses, Side Effects, Precautions, Interactions, Dosing and Reviews

ZINC: Overview, Uses, Side Effects, Precautions, Interactions, Dosing and Reviews

Skip to main content Home Conditions Back Conditions View All ADD/ADHDAllergiesArthritisAtrial fibrillationBreast CancerCancerCrohn's DiseaseDepressionDiabetesDVTEczemaEye HealthHeart DiseaseHIV & AIDSLung DiseaseLupusMental HealthMultiple SclerosisMigrainePain ManagementPsoriasisPsoriatic ArthritisRheumatoid ArthritisSexual ConditionsSkin ProblemsSleep DisordersUlcerative Colitis View All Drugs & Supplements Back Drugs & SupplementsDrugsSupplementsPill IdentifierInteraction CheckerWell-Being Back Well-Being View All Aging WellBabyBirth ControlChildren's HealthDiet & Weight ManagementFitness & ExerciseFood & RecipesHealthy BeautyMen's HealthParentingPet HealthPregnancySex & RelationshipsTeen HealthWomen's Health View All Symptom CheckerFind a DoctorMore Back MoreNewsBlogsPodcastsWebinarsNewslettersWebMD MagazineBest HospitalsSupport GroupsOrthopedics Privacy & More Subscribe Log In Search Subscribe MENU VITAMINS & SUPPLEMENTS CENTER Find a Vitamin or Supplement Find a Vitamin by Condition Assess Your Vitamin Needs DRUGS AND MEDICATIONS CENTER Find a Drug My Medicine Pill Identifier Interaction Checker Latest Drug News Find a Vitamin Find a Pharmacy FIRST AID RESOURCES First Aid A-Z First Aid Kit & Wound Care First Aid Mobile RELATED TO VITAMINS & SUPPLEMENTS Drugs & Medications Pill Identifier My Medicine Interaction Checker Diet & Weight Management Food & Recipes Vitamins & Supplements zincZINC - Uses, Side Effects, and More OTHER NAME(S): Acétate de Zinc, Acexamate de Zinc, Aspartate de Z ... Show More OTHER NAME(S): Acétate de Zinc, Acexamate de Zinc, Aspartate de Z ... Show More OverviewUsesSide EffectsPrecautionsInteractionsDosing Reviews (64) Overview Zinc is an essential trace element commonly found in red meat, poultry, and fish. It is necessary in small amounts for human health, growth, and sense of taste. Zinc is found throughout the body. The body doesn't store excess zinc, so it must be obtained from the diet. It's needed for immune function, wound healing, blood clotting, thyroid function, and much more. It also plays a key role in maintaining vision and might have effects against viruses. People commonly use zinc for zinc deficiency, diarrhea, and Wilson disease. Zinc is also used for acne, diabetes, anorexia, burns, and many other purposes. There is some scientific evidence to support its use for some of these conditions. But for most, there is no good scientific evidence to support its use. There is also no good evidence to support using zinc for COVID-19. Uses & Effectiveness ? Effective for Zinc deficiency. Taking zinc by mouth or giving zinc by IV helps to restore zinc levels in people who are zinc deficient. But taking zinc supplements regularly isn't recommended. IV products can only be given by a healthcare provider. Likely Effective for Diarrhea. Taking zinc by mouth reduces the duration and severity of diarrhea in children who are undernourished. Zinc 20 mg daily is the most common dose used. But doses of 5-10 mg also seem to work and cause less vomiting. An inherited disorder that causes copper to build up in many organs (Wilson disease). Taking zinc by mouth improves symptoms of this condition. Zinc blocks how much copper is absorbed and increases how much copper the body releases. Possibly Effective for Acne. Taking zinc by mouth seems to help treat acne. But it's unclear how zinc compares to acne medications such as tetracycline or minocycline. Applying zinc to the skin alone in an ointment doesn't seem to help. A disorder of zinc deficiency (acrodermatitis enteropathica). Taking zinc by mouth seems to help improve symptoms of this condition. An eye disease that leads to vision loss in older adults (age-related macular degeneration or AMD). Taking zinc by mouth, especially with antioxidant vitamins, might help slow vision loss and prevent age-related vision loss from becoming advanced in people at high risk. Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In children, taking zinc by mouth along with medicine for ADHD might help reduce certain ADHD symptoms. Child growth. Taking zinc by mouth during pregnancy seems to help improve the growth of the infant during the first year of life. Common cold. Sucking on lozenges containing zinc gluconate or zinc acetate helps shorten the length of a cold in adults. But it's not clear if zinc helps to prevent colds. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Taking zinc by mouth or giving zinc by IV might lower the chance of death in people admitted to the hospital for COVID-19. But taking zinc by mouth doesn't seem to speed up recovery from COVID-19 in people who haven't been admitted to the hospital. Depression. Taking zinc by mouth along with antidepressants seems to improve depression. It might also help in people who don't respond to treatment with antidepressants alone. Diabetes. Taking zinc by mouth might help to improve blood sugar control by a small amount in people with diabetes. Diaper rash. Giving zinc gluconate by mouth to infants seems to help heal diaper rash. Applying zinc oxide paste also seems to help. But it doesn't seem to work as well as applying 2% eosin solution. A mild form of gum disease (gingivitis). Using toothpastes containing zinc, with or without an antibacterial agent, seems to help prevent gingivitis. Bad breath. Chewing gum, sucking on a candy, or using a mouth rinse containing zinc reduces bad breath. Cold sores (herpes labialis). Applying zinc sulfate or zinc oxide to the skin, alone or with other ingredients, seems to reduce the duration and severity of cold sores. Reduced ability to taste (hypogeusia). Taking zinc by mouth improves the ability to taste foods in most people who have this condition. Skin infection caused by Leishmania parasites (Leishmania lesions). Taking zinc sulfate by mouth or injecting as a solution into lesions helps heal lesions in people with this condition. But it doesn't seem to work as well as conventional treatments. Injections should only be given by a healthcare provider. Leprosy. Taking zinc by mouth in combination with anti-leprosy drugs seems to help treat leprosy. Infants born weighing less than 2500 grams (5 pounds, 8 ounces). Giving oral zinc to these infants seems to help increase weight and height. But taking zinc while pregnant does not seem to help increase infant weight at birth. Stomach ulcers. Taking zinc acexamate by mouth seems to help treat and prevent stomach ulcers. Pneumonia. Taking zinc by mouth might help prevent pneumonia in some children. But it doesn't seem to help children who already have pneumonia. Growth and development in premature infants. Giving oral zinc to these infants seems to help increase weight and height. Bed sores (pressure ulcers). Applying zinc paste to the skin appears to help heal bed sores. Taking zinc by mouth along with vitamin C and arginine might also help. Sickle cell disease. Taking zinc by mouth seems to help reduce symptoms of sickle cell disease in people with zinc deficiency. Warts. Applying a zinc ointment appears to be as effective as conventional treatments for curing warts. Taking zinc sulfate by mouth also appears to help. Possibly Ineffective for Patchy hair loss (alopecia areata). Taking zinc by mouth doesn't seem to help with hair loss. Cystic fibrosis. Taking zinc by mouth doesn't improve lung function in children or adolescents with cystic fibrosis. HIV/AIDS. Taking zinc by mouth doesn't improve immune function or reduce the risk of death in people with HIV. Pregnancy complications in people with HIV/AIDS. Taking zinc by mouth during pregnancy does not appear to reduce the risk of transmitting HIV to the infant or prevent other complications. Involuntary weight loss in people with HIV/AIDS. Taking zinc by mouth does not appear to prevent diarrhea or death in people with this condition. Infant development. Giving zinc by mouth to infants or children at risk for having low levels of zinc doesn't seem to improve development. But taking zinc by mouth during pregnancy might increase the growth of the child during the first year of life. Long-term swelling (inflammation) in the digestive tract (inflammatory bowel disease or IBD). Taking zinc by mouth does not seem to help treat IBD. Flu (influenza). Taking zinc by mouth doesn't seem to improve immune function against the flu. Ear infection (otitis media). Taking zinc by mouth doesn't seem to prevent ear infections in children. A pregnancy complication marked by high blood pressure and protein in the urine (pre-eclampsia). Taking zinc does not seem to reduce the risk of high blood pressure in pregnancy. Prostate cancer. Taking zinc by mouth does not seem to reduce the risk of getting prostate cancer. Scaly, itchy skin (psoriasis). Taking zinc by mouth does not seem to help treat psoriasis. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Taking zinc by mouth does not seem to help treat rheumatoid arthritis. Sexual problems that prevent satisfaction during sexual activity. Taking zinc by mouth does not improve sexual function in males with sexual dysfunction related to kidney disease. Ringing in the ears (tinnitus). Taking zinc by mouth does not seem to help treat ringing in the ears. Likely InEffective for Malaria. Taking zinc by mouth does not help prevent or treat malaria in undernourished children in developing countries or pregnant adults. There is interest in using zinc for a number of other purposes, but there isn't enough reliable information to say whether it might be helpful. Side Effects When taken by mouth: Zinc is likely safe when used in amounts no greater than 40 mg daily. It is possibly safe when taken in larger doses, especially when used only for a short period of time. But taking doses higher than 40 mg daily might decrease how much copper the body absorbs. Taking very high doses of zinc is likely unsafe and might cause stomach pain, vomiting, and many other problems. Single doses of 10-30 grams of zinc can be fatal. When applied to the skin: Zinc is likely safe. Using zinc on broken skin may cause burning, stinging, itching, and tingling. When inhaled: Zinc is possibly unsafe when inhaled through the nose. It might cause permanent loss of smell. Avoid using nose sprays containing zinc. Special Precautions and Warnings When taken by mouth: Zinc is likely safe when used in amounts no greater than 40 mg daily. It is possibly safe when taken in larger doses, especially when used only for a short period of time. But taking doses higher than 40 mg daily might decrease how much copper the body absorbs. Taking very high doses of zinc is likely unsafe and might cause stomach pain, vomiting, and many other problems. Single doses of 10-30 grams of zinc can be fatal. When applied to the skin: Zinc is likely safe. Using zinc on broken skin may cause burning, stinging, itching, and tingling. When inhaled: Zinc is possibly unsafe when inhaled through the nose. It might cause permanent loss of smell. Avoid using nose sprays containing zinc. Pregnancy: Zinc is likely safe when used in the recommended amounts while pregnant. But it is likely unsafe when used in high doses. Those over 18 should not take more than 40 mg of zinc daily, and those 14-18 years old should not take more than 34 mg daily while pregnant. Breast-feeding: Zinc is likely safe when used in the recommended amounts while breast-feeding. But zinc is possibly unsafe when used in high doses. Those over 18 years old should not take more than 40 mg of zinc daily, and those 14-18 years old should not take more than 34 mg daily while breast-feeding. Children: Zinc is likely safe when taken by mouth appropriately in recommended amounts. Daily doses of zinc should not exceed 4 mg daily in infants 0-6 months old, 5 mg daily in infants 7-12 months old, 7 mg daily in children 1-3 years old, 12 mg daily in children 4-8 years old, 23 mg daily in children 9-13 years old, and 34 mg daily in those 14-18 years old. In infants, it is possibly unsafe to apply topical zinc to broken skin. The zinc can be absorbed through the breaks in the skin and cause serious adverse effects. Alcohol use disorder: Long-term, excessive alcohol use may reduce the body's ability to absorb zinc. Surgery for weight-loss (bariatric surgery): Bariatric surgery reduces the absorption of zinc and might increase the risk for zinc deficiency. Zinc levels may need to be monitored. Kidney disease: Low intake of zinc in the diet might increase the risk of getting kidney disease. Also, people with kidney disease who are on hemodialysis are at risk for zinc deficiency and might require zinc supplements. Vegetarianism: Vegetarian diets are often linked with lower zinc absorption. But the body adapts over time. It becomes better at absorbing zinc and reducing zinc loss. Interactions ? Moderate Interaction Be cautious with this combination Antibiotics (Quinolone antibiotics) interacts with ZINCZinc might decrease how much antibiotic the body absorbs from the gut. Taking zinc along with quinolone antibiotics might decrease the effects of these antibiotics. To avoid this interaction, take antibiotics at least 2 hours before or 4-6 hours after zinc supplements.Antibiotics (Tetracycline antibiotics) interacts with ZINCZinc can decrease the amount of tetracyclines the body absorbs. Taking zinc with tetracyclines might decrease the effects of tetracyclines. To avoid this interaction, take tetracyclines 2 hours before or 4-6 hours after taking zinc supplements.Cisplatin (Platinol-AQ) interacts with ZINCCisplatin is used to treat cancer. Taking zinc along with cisplatin might inactivate cisplatin therapy. But it's not clear if this is a big concern.Penicillamine (Cuprimine, Depen) interacts with ZINCZinc might decrease how much penicillamine the body absorbs. Taking zinc with penicillamine might decrease the effects of penicillamine. Take zinc and penicillamine at least 2 hours apart.Cephalexin (Keflex) interacts with ZINCZinc can reduce how much cephalexin the body absorbs. This might decrease how well cephalexin works for treating infections. To avoid this interaction, take zinc 3 hours after taking cephalexin.Ritonavir (Norvir) interacts with ZINCRitonavir is a drug used for HIV infection. Zinc can reduce how much ritonavir the body absorbs. But it isn't clear if this is a big concern.Medications for HIV/AIDS (Integrase inhibitors) interacts with ZINCTaking zinc along with integrase inhibitors might decrease blood levels of integrase inhibitors. This might decrease the effects of these medications. Talk to your healthcare provider if you are using integrase inhibitors and want to start taking zinc.Minor Interaction Be watchful with this combination Amiloride (Midamor) interacts with ZINCAmiloride can increase the amount of zinc in the body. Taking zinc supplements with amiloride might increase zinc levels. But this isn't likely to be a big concern for most people.Atazanavir (Reyataz) interacts with ZINCAtazanavir is a drug used for HIV infection. Zinc decreases how much atazanavir the body absorbs. But the body still absorbs enough atazanavir for it to work for treating HIV. So this interaction is probably not a big concern. Dosing Zinc is an essential nutrient found in foods such as red meat, poultry, and fish. The amount that should be consumed on a daily basis is called the recommended dietary allowance (RDA). For females 18 years of age the RDA is 9 mg, and for females 19 years and older the RDA is 8 mg. For males 18 years and older the RDA is 11 mg. While pregnant, the RDA is 13 mg in those 18 years of age and 11 mg in those 19 years and older. While breast-feeding, the RDA is 17 mg in those 18 years of age and 12 mg in those 19 years and older. In children, the RDA depends on age. Zinc is also available in supplements, lotions, gels, ointments, mouth rinses, and many other products. Speak with a healthcare provider to find out what type of product and dose might be best for a specific condition. 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View abstract.Zavros A, Andreou E, Aphamis G, et al. The Effects of Zinc and Selenium Co-Supplementation on Resting Metabolic Rate, Thyroid Function, Physical Fitness, and Functional Capacity in Overweight and Obese People under a Hypocaloric Diet: A Randomized, Double-Blind, and Placebo-Controlled Trial. Nutrients 2023;15(14):3133. View abstract.Zemel BS, Kawchak DA, Fung EB, et al. Effect of zinc supplementation on growth and body composition in children with sickle cell disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;75:300-7. View abstract.Zhou JR, Erdman JW Jr. Phytic acid in health and disease. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 1995;35:495-508. View abstract.Zittel S, Ufer F, Gerloff C, Münchau A, Rosenkranz M. Severe myelopathy after denture cream use--is copper deficiency or excess zinc the cause? Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2014 Jun;121:17-8. View abstract.Zolfaghari B, Ghanbari M, Musavi H, et al. Investigation of zinc supplement impact on the serum biochemical parameters in pulmonary tuberculosis: A double blinded placebo control trial. Rep Biochem Mol Biol 2021;10(2):173-182. View abstract.Zoli A, Altomonte L, Caricchio R, et al. Serum zinc and copper in active rheumatoid arthritis: correlation with interleukin 1 beta and tumour necrosis factor alpha. Clin Rheumatol 1998;17:378-82. View abstract.Zumkley H, Bertram HP, Preusser P, et al. Renal excretion and magnesium and trace elements during cisplatin treatment. Clin Nephrol 1982;17:254. View abstract.Zumkley H, Bertram HP, Vetter H, et al. Zinc metabolism during captopril treatment. Horm Metab Res 1985;17;256-8. View abstract. 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Zinc - Consumer

Zinc - Consumer

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Zinc

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Table of Contents

What is zinc and what does it do?

How much zinc do I need?

What foods provide zinc?

What kinds of zinc dietary supplements are available?

Am I getting enough zinc?

What happens if I don’t get enough zinc?

What are some effects of zinc on health?

Can zinc be harmful?

Does zinc interact with medications or other dietary supplements?

Zinc and healthful eating

Where can I find out more about zinc?

Disclaimer

This is a general overview. For more in-depth information, see our health professional fact sheet.

For information on zinc and COVID-19, see Dietary Supplements in the Time of COVID-19.

What is zinc and what does it do?

Zinc is a nutrient that people need to stay healthy. Zinc is found in cells throughout the body. It helps your immune system fight off invading bacteria and viruses. Your body also uses zinc to make DNA (the genetic material in cells) and proteins. During pregnancy, infancy, childhood, and adolescence the body needs zinc to grow and develop properly. Zinc also helps wounds heal and is important for the proper sense of taste.

How much zinc do I need?

The amount of zinc you need each day depends on your age. Average daily recommended amounts for different ages are listed below in milligrams (mg).

Life Stage

Recommended Amount

Birth to 6 months

2 mg

Infants 7–12 months

3 mg

Children 1–3 years

3 mg

Children 4–8 years

5 mg

Children 9–13 years

8 mg

Teen males 14–18 years

11 mg

Teen females 14–18 years

9 mg

Adult males

11 mg

Adult females

8 mg

Pregnant teens

12 mg

Pregnant adults

11 mg

Breastfeeding teens

13 mg

Breastfeeding adults

12 mg

What foods provide zinc?

Many foods contain zinc. You can get recommended amounts of zinc by eating a variety of foods including the following:

Oysters, which have very high amounts of zinc.

Meat, fish, poultry, seafood such as crab and lobsters, and fortified breakfast cereals are also good sources of zinc.

Beans, nuts, whole grains, eggs, and dairy products provide some zinc.

What kinds of zinc dietary supplements are available?

Almost all multivitamin/mineral dietary supplements contain zinc. Zinc is also available alone or combined with calcium, magnesium, or other ingredients in dietary supplements.

Dietary supplements can have several different forms of zinc, such as zinc sulfate, zinc acetate, and zinc gluconate. It's not clear whether one form is better than the others.

Zinc is also found in some denture adhesive creams and over-the-counter products, including those labeled as homeopathic medications for colds.

Am I getting enough zinc?

Most people in the United States get enough zinc from the foods they eat.

However, certain groups of people may have trouble getting enough zinc:

People who have had gastrointestinal surgery, such as weight loss surgery, or people who have digestive disorders, such as ulcerative colitis or Crohn’s disease. These conditions can decrease the amount of zinc that the body absorbs and increase the amount that is lost in urine.

People who follow vegetarian or vegan diets because they do not eat meat, which is a good source of zinc. Also, beans and grains contain phytates that reduce the amount of zinc the body absorbs. Vegetarians and vegans might benefit from taking zinc supplements.

People who are pregnant or breastfeeding because they need more zinc for their growing baby and to make breast milk.

Older infants who are breastfed because breast milk does not provide enough zinc for infants over 6 months of age. Older infants should be given foods that have zinc, such as pureed meats.

Children who have sickle cell disease, possibly because the medications they take can cause low levels of zinc. These children might benefit from taking zinc supplements.

People who have alcohol use disorder, because alcohol reduces the amount of zinc the body absorbs and increases the amount that is lost in urine. Also, people with alcohol use disorder tend to consume lower amounts of nutrients, including zinc.

What happens if I don’t get enough zinc?

Zinc deficiency causes diarrhea, slow growth, and loss of appetite in infants and children. Infants and children who have had a zinc deficiency may have reproductive problems when they become adults. In older children, zinc deficiency also causes hair loss and frequent infections.

Zinc deficiency at any age can cause a loss of taste and smell. In older adults, zinc deficiency can delay wound healing and cause problems with thinking, reasoning, and memory.

In lower income countries, zinc deficiency during pregnancy can cause premature births and other complications. Babies may have low weight at birth and a higher risk of death.

Many of these symptoms can be signs of problems other than a zinc deficiency. If you have any of these symptoms, your health care provider can help determine if you might have a zinc deficiency.

What are some effects of zinc on health?

Scientists are studying zinc to better understand how it affects health. Here are several examples of what research on zinc has shown.

The common cold

Some studies suggest that zinc lozenges or zinc syrup speeds recovery from the common cold if you start taking them at the start of a cold. However, these products don't seem to affect the severity of cold symptoms. More study is needed to determine the best dose and form of zinc for the common cold as well as how often and how long it should be taken.

Pneumonia in children

Some studies in lower income countries show that zinc supplements lower the risk of pneumonia in young children. Zinc doesn't seem to speed recovery or reduce the number of deaths from pneumonia.

HIV in children and adults

Many people with HIV have low zinc levels. This occurs because they have trouble absorbing zinc from food. They also often have diarrhea, which increases zinc loss. Some studies show that supplemental zinc decreases diarrhea and complications of HIV, but other studies do not show this. Zinc supplements do not appear to reduce the risk of death in people with HIV. More research is needed to determine whether zinc supplements might help people with HIV.

Childhood diarrhea

Children in developing countries often die from diarrhea. Studies show that zinc supplements help reduce the duration of diarrhea in these children, many of whom are zinc deficient or otherwise malnourished. The World Health Organization and UNICEF recommend that children with diarrhea take zinc for 10–14 days (20 mg/day, or 10 mg/day for infants under 6 months). It’s not clear whether zinc supplements help treat diarrhea in children who get enough zinc, such as most children in the United States.

Age-related macular degeneration

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is an eye disease that gradually causes vision loss. In large studies among older people with AMD who were at high risk of developing advanced AMD, those who took daily dietary supplements with zinc and other ingredients for 5 years had a lower risk of developing advanced AMD than those who did not take the supplements. The ingredients in the supplements were: 80 mg zinc plus vitamin E, vitamin C, copper, and either beta-carotene or lutein and zeaxanthin. People who have or are developing AMD should talk with their doctor about taking a dietary supplement called AREDS or AREDS2.

Type 2 diabetes

People with type 2 diabetes often have low zinc levels. Some research shows that zinc supplements might help lower blood sugar and cholesterol levels. However, more research is needed to learn if zinc might be recommended for people with type 2 diabetes.

Can zinc be harmful?

Yes, too much zinc can be harmful. Signs of too much zinc include nausea, dizziness, headaches, upset stomach, vomiting, and loss of appetite. If you take too much zinc for a long time, you could have problems such as lower immunity, low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (good) cholesterol, and low copper levels. Taking very high doses of supplemental zinc can reduce your body’s absorption of magnesium.

Using large amounts of denture creams that contain zinc, well beyond what the label recommends, could lead to excessive zinc intake and copper deficiency. This can cause neurological problems, including loss of coordination, numbness, and weakness in the arms, legs, and feet.

The daily upper limits for zinc include intakes from all sources—foods, beverages, supplements, and medications. The chart below lists the amounts by age group. These upper limits do not apply to people who take supplemental zinc for medical reasons under the care of a doctor.

Ages

Upper Limit

Birth to 6 months

4 mg

Infants 7–12 months

5 mg

Children 1–3 years

7 mg

Children 4–8 years

12 mg

Children 9–13 years

23 mg

Teens 14–18 years

34 mg

Adults

40 mg

Does zinc interact with medications or other dietary supplements?

Yes. Zinc dietary supplements can interact or interfere with some medicines you might take. In some cases, medicines can lower zinc levels in your body. Here are several examples:

Both quinolone antibiotics (such as Cipro) and tetracycline antibiotics (such as Achromycin and Sumycin) might reduce the amount of both zinc and the antibiotic that your body absorbs. To help avoid this interaction, take the antibiotic at least 2 hours before, or 4 to 6 hours after, taking a zinc supplement.

Penicillamine is a drug used to treat rheumatoid arthritis and Wilson disease. Zinc supplements can reduce the amount of penicillamine that your body absorbs. To help avoid this interaction, take zinc supplements and penicillamine at least 1 hour apart.

Thiazide diuretics, such as chlorthalidone (Hygroton) and hydrochlorothiazide (Esidrix and HydroDIURIL) increase the amount of zinc lost in urine. Taking thiazide diuretics for a long time might decrease the amount of zinc in your body.

Tell your doctor, pharmacist, and other health care providers about any dietary supplements and prescription or over-the-counter medicines you take. They can tell you if the dietary supplements might interact with your medicines. They can also explain whether the medicines you take might interfere with how your body absorbs or uses other nutrients.

Zinc and healthful eating

People should get most of their nutrients from food and beverages, according to the federal government’s Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Foods contain vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, and other components that benefit health. In some cases, fortified foods and dietary supplements are useful when it is not possible to meet needs for one or more nutrients (for example, during specific life stages such as pregnancy). For more information about building a healthy dietary pattern, see the Dietary Guidelines for Americans and the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA's) MyPlate.

Where can I find out more about zinc?

For general information on zinc

Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) Health Professional Fact Sheet on Zinc and Consumer Fact Sheet on Zinc in Spanish

Zinc and Zinc in diet, MedlinePlus

For more information on food sources of zinc

USDA’s FoodData Central

Nutrient List for zinc (listed by food or by zinc content), USDA

For more advice on choosing dietary supplements

ODS Frequently Asked Questions: Which brand(s) of dietary supplements should I purchase?

For information about building a healthy dietary pattern

MyPlate

Dietary Guidelines for Americans

Disclaimer

This fact sheet by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) provides information that should not take the place of medical advice. We encourage you to talk to your health care providers (doctor, registered dietitian, pharmacist, etc.) about your interest in, questions about, or use of dietary supplements and what may be best for your overall health. Any mention in this publication of a specific product or service, or recommendation from an organization or professional society, does not represent an endorsement by ODS of that product, service, or expert advice.

Updated:

October 4, 2022

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